Synaptic failure and α-synuclein.

Although the physiological function of α-synuclein is not fully understood, it has been suggested to primarily localize to the presynaptic terminals of mature neurons, where it fulfills roles in synaptic function and plasticity. Based on current knowledge, α-synuclein (αSYN) is thought to be involved in maintaining neurotransmitter homeostasis by regulating synaptic vesicle fusion, clustering, and trafficking between the reserve and ready-releasable pools, as well as interacting with neurotransmitter membrane transporters. In this review, we focus on evidence proposing synapses as the main site of αSYN pathology and its propagation in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, which belong to a group of neurodegenerative diseases known as α-synucleinopathies.

Role of Toll-like receptor-4 in renal graft ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) has been increasingly recognized as playing a critical role in the pathogenesis of ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) of renal grafts. This review provides a detailed overview of the new understanding of the involvement of TLR-4 in ischemia-reperfusion injury of renal grafts and its clinical significance in renal transplantation. TLR-4 not only responds to exogenous microbial motifs but can also recognize molecules which are released by stressed and necrotic cells, as well as degraded products of endogenous macromolecules.