[Cardiac rehabilitation: physiologic basis, beneficial effects and contraindications].

Cardiac rehabilitation can reduce morbidity and mortality cost-effectively among patients with many types of cardiovascular disease yet is widely underutilized. Rehabilitation is helpful not only for patients who have had myocardial infarction but also for those with stable angina or congestive heart failure and those who have undergone myocardial revascularization, transplantation, or valve surgery. The beneficial effects of rehabilitation include a reduction in mortality from cardiovascular disease, improved exercise tolerance, and fewer cardiac symptoms.

[Obesity and the prognosis of heart failure: the obesity paradox, myth or reality?].

Obesity has now reached epidemic proportions worldwide. Obesity is associated with numerous comorbidities, including hypertension, lipid disorders and type II diabetes, and is also a major cause of cardiovascular disease, coronary disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and sudden death. Obesity is the main cause of heart failure in respectively 11% and 14% of cases in men and women.

[Prescription and follow-up of antithrombotic treatment with vitamin K antagonists].

The indications for antithrombotic treatment with vitamin K antagonists are now relatively precise, but management of this treatment is often difficult in clinical practice and be set by problems such as unstable hypocoagulability, an increased bleeding risk, interactions with other therapies and pathologies, and high-level vitamin K intake in the diet. Rigorous and accurate information of the patient and family, along with regular and frequent control of the international normalized ratio (INR), are essential for the safety and efficacy of this treatment. Some physicians cite an excessive bleeding risk as one reason for withholding oral anticoagulation therapy from older patients with atrial fibrillation.

[Bleeding risk and acute coronary syndromes in the elderly].

Bleeding has recently emerged as an important factor in the management and outcome of acute coronary syndromes (ACS), particularly in elderly patients undergoing percutaneous invasive revascularization. There is evidence that patients who experience major bleeding in the acute phase of ACS are at a higher risk of death or a new infarct in the following months, although the causal nature of this relationship is controversial. In this short review we present the different definitions of bleeding, recommended strategies for the treatment of non ST elevation ACS, predictors of bleeding, and therapeutic options for reducing this risk in elderly patients.

[Thrombotic risk factors and antithrombotic treatment in atrial fibrillation].

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common form of cardiac arrhythmia, and its incidence is rising as the population ages. AF is therefore a growing source of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality due to thromboembolic complications and heart failure. The risk of embolic stroke is multiplied by about 5.

[Ventricular arrhythmias, sudden death and heart failure].

Despite therapeutic advances, the mortality rate associated with congestive heart failure remains as high as 20% per year. Among patients with severe left ventricular dysfunction, more than 60% of deaths result from ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation, 20% from bradyarrhythmias (including advanced atrio-ventricular block or asystole), and 20% from terminal ventricular pump failure. Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death result from an interaction between a trigger and a substrate with neurohumoral factors (enhanced activity of the adrenergic and renin-angiotensin systems, electrolyte disturbances, etc.

[Stress cardiomyopathy, a topical cardiac disorder].

Stress cardiomyopathy (Tako-Tsubo, Broken Heart syndrome, or apical ballooning syndrome) was recently recognized as a distinct clinical entity. The aims of this review are to define this acute and reversible cardiomyopathy and to list its major clinical, biological and angiographic features. We performed a Medline scan for all relevant case series.

[Myocardial infarction and oral contraceptives].

Shortly after the introduction of oral contraceptives in 1960, myocardial infarction (MI) started to emerge as a major adverse effect. Its mechanism and pathophysiology have remained elusive. Many epidemiological studies identified smoking, hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia as risk factors for coronary thrombosis in young women using oral contraceptives.

[Secondary prevention after myocardial infarction].

The mortality rate after myocardial infarction fell sharply with the advent of reperfusion methods and the use of efficient antithrombotic and antiischemic drugs. However, new infarcts, heart failure, arrythmias and sudden death remain frequent, especially in the first two years after the initial event. Large clinical studies have defined and validated therapies for secondary prevention, but the recommended measures are not always properly implemented.

[Myocardial infarction with "angiographycally normal coronary arteries" myth or reality?].

The leading cause of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in patients with coronary heart disease is plaque rupture. Between 6% and 12% of AMI patients have angiographically normal coronary arteries. However, new procedures have demonstrated the limits of coronarography and challenged the existence of this situation.

[Influence of depression on the prognosis of cardiovascular diseases].

Coronary artery disease, heart failure and depression are all highly prevalent after 60 years of age. They significantly affect quality of life and represent a major economic burden for society. Some epidemiological and observational studies suggest that depression is an independent risk factor for the onset and progression of ischemic heart disease and heart failure.

[Coronary syndromes in the elderly].

Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) are frequent in the elderly and carry a poor prognosis. Severe coronary artery disease, frequent comorbidity, late diagnosis, and treatments themselves are responsible for high morbidity and mortality rates. Reluctance to treat elderly patients with new mechanical or chemical revascularization techniques is due to the higher risk profile.

[Arrhythmia-induced dilated cardiomyopathies].

Arrhythmic cardiomyopathies are due to ventricular dysfunction following prolonged or chronic tachycardia; the clinical pictures one of congestive heart failure, which is totally reversible after the treatment of tachycardia and the restoration of sinus rhythm. Since Whipple's first description of this model of heart failure, several teams have shown that ventricular or atrial pacing at rates exceeding 220 beats per minute produces a profound and largely reversible depression of ventricular function, and a constellation of neuroendocrine abnormalities and metabolic, electrophysiological and anatomic alterations of the myocardium. The associated heart failure generally starts to improve within days of achieving ventricular rhythm control, but clinical recovery may take several weeks or months.

[Sleep apnea syndromes and cardiovascular disease].

Sleep-disordered breathing is very common and is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, cardiac arrhythmia and stroke. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive and central. The objective of this review is to provide a broad perspective of the pathophysiological and clinical aspects of the two types of apnea and to discuss their cardiovascular adverse effects.

[Prognosis after acute coronary syndrome. Lack of difference according to the sex].

Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) represent a continuum from unstable angina to non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. ACS is the preferred diagnostic term for non transmural myocardial infarction. The different forms of ACS share a common anatomic substrate consisting of atherosclerotic plaque rupture or erosion, with variable degrees of thrombus formation and compromised blood flow to viable myocardium.

[Heart failure with preserved left ventricular function: clinical, echocardiographic, and clinical course features. Prognostic factors].

Heart failure is clinically associated with inadequate myocardial contraction, a significant reduction of left ventricular systolic function and ejection fraction and a cardiac enlargement. Some studies have reported that patients with symptomatic heart failure may have an impaired left ventricular filling with a normal or preserved left ventricular systolic function and an ejection fraction > 45%. These patients have a "diastolic heart failure" often neglected or misdiagnosed.