Patterns of connexin36 and eGFP reporter expression among motoneurons in spinal sexually dimorphic motor nuclei in mouse.

Background: Sexually dimorphic spinal motoneurons (MNs) in the dorsomedial nucleus (DMN) and dorsolateral nucleus (DLN) as well as those in the cremaster nucleus are involved in reproductive behaviours, and the cremaster nucleus additionally contributes to testicular thermoregulation. It has been reported that MNs in DMN and DLN are extensively linked by gap junctions forming electrical synapses composed of connexin36 (Cx36) and there is evidence that subpopulation of MNs in the cremaster nucleus are also electrically coupled by these synapses.

Methodology: We used immunofluorescence methods to detect enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter for Cx36 expression in these motor nuclei.

Association of connexin36 with adherens junctions at mixed synapses and distinguishing electrophysiological features of those at mossy fiber terminals in rat ventral hippocampus.

Background: Granule cells in the hippocampus project axons to hippocampal CA3 pyramidal cells where they form large mossy fiber terminals. We have reported that these terminals contain the gap junction protein connexin36 (Cx36) specifically in the stratum lucidum of rat ventral hippocampus, thus creating morphologically mixed synapses that have the potential for dual chemical/electrical transmission.

Methodology: Here, we used various approaches to characterize molecular and electrophysiological relationships between the Cx36-containing gap junctions at mossy fiber terminals and their postsynaptic elements and to examine molecular relationships at mixed synapses in the brainstem.

Connexin-36-positive gap junctions in ventral tegmental area GABA neurons sustain opiate dependence.

Drug dependence is characterized by a switch in motivation wherein a positively reinforcing substance can become negatively reinforcing. Put differently, drug use can transform from a form of pleasure-seeking to a form of relief-seeking. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) GABA neurons form an anatomical point of divergence between two double dissociable pathways that have been shown to be functionally implicated and necessary for these respective motivations to seek drugs.

Ambiguity in Solving Imaging Inverse Problems with Deep-Learning-Based Operators.

In recent years, large convolutional neural networks have been widely used as tools for image deblurring, because of their ability in restoring images very precisely. It is well known that image deblurring is mathematically modeled as an ill-posed inverse problem and its solution is difficult to approximate when noise affects the data. Really, one limitation of neural networks for deblurring is their sensitivity to noise and other perturbations, which can lead to instability and produce poor reconstructions.

Effect of high fat diet on maternal behavior, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neural stem cell proliferation in mice expressing human placental lactogen during pregnancy.

Maternal obesity is a serious health concern because it increases risks of neurological disorders, including anxiety and peripartum depression. In mice, a high fat diet (HFD) in pregnancy can negatively affect placental structure and function as well as maternal behavior reflected by impaired nest building and pup-retrieval. In humans, maternal obesity in pregnancy is associated with reduced placental lactogen (PL) gene expression, which has been linked to a higher risk of depression.

Numerical methods for CT reconstruction with unknown geometry parameters.

Computed tomography (CT) techniques are well known for their ability to produce high-quality images needed for medical diagnostic purposes. Unfortunately, standard CT machines are extremely large, heavy, require careful and regular calibration, and are expensive, which can limit their availability in point-of-care situations. An alternative approach is to use portable machines, but parameters related to the geometry of these devices (e.

Minimizing over norms on the gradient.

In this paper, we study the minimization on the gradient for imaging applications. Several recent works have demonstrated that is better than the norm when approximating the norm to promote sparsity. Consequently, we postulate that applying on the gradient is better than the classic total variation (the norm on the gradient) to enforce the sparsity of the image gradient.

Connexin36 localization along axon initial segments in the mammalian CNS.

Electrical synapses formed by gap junctions occur at a variety of neuronal subcellular sites in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), including at somatic, dendritic and axon terminal compartments. Numerous electrophysiological studies using mice and rats, as well as computer modelling approaches, have predicted the additional occurrence of electrical synapses between axons near their emergence from neuronal somata. Here, we used immunofluorescence methods to search for localization of the neuronal gap junction-forming protein connexin36 (Cx36) along axon initial segments (AISs) labelled for the AIS marker ankyrinG.

Iodine quantification in limited angle tomography.

Purpose: To develop and test the feasibility of a two-pass iterative reconstruction algorithm with material decomposition designed to obtain quantitative iodine measurements in digital breast tomosynthesis.

Methods: Contrast-enhanced mammography has shown promise as a cost-effective alternative to magnetic resonance imaging for imaging breast cancer, especially in dense breasts. However, one limitation is the poor quantification of iodine contrast since the true three-dimensional lesion shape cannot be inferred from the two-dimensional (2D) projection.

Gap junction connexin43 is a key element in mediating phagocytosis activity in human trabecular meshwork cells.

Human trabecular meshwork (TM) cells play pivotal roles in maintaining homeostasis of intraocular pressure via regulation of aqueous humor outflow. These cells are capable of phagocytosis, which is considered to be essential for their regulatory function. In addition, there is a strong expression of the gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43) in the TM.

ZO-1 associates with α3 integrin and connexin43 in trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal cells.

Cellular structures that perform essential homeostatic functions include tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes and adherens junctions. The aqueous humor, produced by the ciliary body, passes into the anterior chamber of the eye and is filtered by the trabecular meshwork (TM), a tiny tissue found in the angle of the eye. This tissue, along with Schlemm's canal (SC) inner wall cells, is thought to control intraocular pressure (IOP) homeostasis for normal, optimal vision.

Could electrical coupling contribute to the formation of cell assemblies?

Cell assemblies and central pattern generators (CPGs) are related types of neuronal networks: both consist of interacting groups of neurons whose collective activities lead to defined functional outputs. In the case of a cell assembly, the functional output may be interpreted as a representation of something in the world, external or internal; for a CPG, the output 'drives' an observable (i.e.

Semi-blind sparse affine spectral unmixing of autofluorescence-contaminated micrographs.

Motivation: Spectral unmixing methods attempt to determine the concentrations of different fluorophores present at each pixel location in an image by analyzing a set of measured emission spectra. Unmixing algorithms have shown great promise for applications where samples contain many fluorescent labels; however, existing methods perform poorly when confronted with autofluorescence-contaminated images.

Results: We propose an unmixing algorithm designed to separate fluorophores with overlapping emission spectra from contamination by autofluorescence and background fluorescence.

E3 ubiquitin ligases LNX1 and LNX2 localize at neuronal gap junctions formed by connexin36 in rodent brain and molecularly interact with connexin36.

Electrical synapses in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) are increasingly recognized as highly complex structures for mediation of neuronal communication, both with respect to their capacity for dynamic short- and long-term modification in efficacy of synaptic transmission and their multimolecular regulatory and structural components. These two characteristics are inextricably linked, such that understanding of mechanisms that contribute to electrical synaptic plasticity requires knowledge of the molecular composition of electrical synapses and the functions of proteins associated with these synapses. Here, we provide evidence that the key component of gap junctions that form the majority of electrical synapses in the mammalian CNS, namely connexin36 (Cx36), directly interacts with the related E3 ubiquitin ligase proteins Ligand of NUMB protein X1 (LNX1) and Ligand of NUMB protein X2 (LNX2).

Electrical Synapses: New Rules for Assembling an Old Structure Asymmetrically.

Electrical synapses are emerging as complex structures, consisting of gap junction-forming connexin proteins and also multiple scaffolding and regulatory protein components, which were assumed to be symmetrically organized across these synapses; however, new findings reveal their synaptic asymmetry.

Astrocytes drive cortical vasodilatory signaling by activating endothelial NMDA receptors.

Astrocytes express neurotransmitter receptors that serve as sensors of synaptic activity and initiate signals leading to activity-dependent local vasodilation and increases in blood flow. We previously showed that arteriolar vasodilation produced by activation of cortical astrocytes is dependent on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and endogenous agonists of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Here, we tested the hypothesis that these effects are mediated by NMDA receptors expressed by brain endothelial cells.

On the occurrence and enigmatic functions of mixed (chemical plus electrical) synapses in the mammalian CNS.

Electrical synapses with diverse configurations and functions occur at a variety of interneuronal appositions, thereby significantly expanding the physiological complexity of neuronal circuitry over that provided solely by chemical synapses. Gap junctions between apposed dendritic and somatic plasma membranes form "purely electrical" synapses that allow for electrical communication between coupled neurons. In addition, gap junctions at axon terminals synapsing on dendrites and somata allow for "mixed" (dual chemical+electrical) synaptic transmission.

Electrical synapses in mammalian CNS: Past eras, present focus and future directions.

Gap junctions provide the basis for electrical synapses between neurons. Early studies in well-defined circuits in lower vertebrates laid the foundation for understanding various properties conferred by electrical synaptic transmission. Knowledge surrounding electrical synapses in mammalian systems unfolded first with evidence indicating the presence of gap junctions between neurons in various brain regions, but with little appreciation of their functional roles.

High-resolution speckle imaging through strong atmospheric turbulence.

We demonstrate that high-resolution imaging through strong atmospheric turbulence can be achieved by acquiring data with a system that captures short exposure ("speckle") images using a range of aperture sizes and then using a bootstrap multi-frame blind deconvolution restoration process that starts with the smallest aperture data. Our results suggest a potential paradigm shift in how we image through atmospheric turbulence. No longer should image acquisition and post processing be treated as two independent processes: they should be considered as intimately related.

KV1 channels identified in rodent myelinated axons, linked to Cx29 in innermost myelin: support for electrically active myelin in mammalian saltatory conduction.

Saltatory conduction in mammalian myelinated axons was thought to be well understood before recent discoveries revealed unexpected subcellular distributions and molecular identities of the K(+)-conductance pathways that provide for rapid axonal repolarization. In this study, we visualize, identify, localize, quantify, and ultrastructurally characterize axonal KV1.1/KV1.

Elevated auditory brainstem response thresholds in mice with Connexin36 gene ablation.

Conclusion: Expression of connexin36 (Cx36) and electrical synapses formed by Cx36-containing gap junctions contribute to normal auditory brainstem response thresholds in mice.

Objectives: Electrical synaptic transmission mediated by gap junctions has not been intensively studied in the auditory system. This study used transgenic mice with knockout of the gene coding for the major protein that forms neuronal gap junctions in mammalian brain (Cx36) to evaluate the role of Cx36 in murine hearing.

Molecular determinants of magnesium-dependent synaptic plasticity at electrical synapses formed by connexin36.

Neuronal gap junction (GJ) channels composed of connexin36 (Cx36) play an important role in neuronal synchronization and network dynamics. Here we show that Cx36-containing electrical synapses between inhibitory neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus are bidirectionally modulated by changes in intracellular free magnesium concentration ([Mg(2+)]i). Chimeragenesis demonstrates that the first extracellular loop of Cx36 contains a Mg(2+)-sensitive domain, and site-directed mutagenesis shows that the pore-lining residue D47 is critical in determining high Mg(2+)-sensitivity.

Functional alterations in gut contractility after connexin36 ablation and evidence for gap junctions forming electrical synapses between nitrergic enteric neurons.

Neurons in the enteric nervous system utilize numerous neurotransmitters to orchestrate rhythmic gut smooth muscle contractions. We examined whether electrical synapses formed by gap junctions containing connexin36 also contribute to communication between enteric neurons in mouse colon. Spontaneous contractility properties and responses to electrical field stimulation and cholinergic agonist were altered in gut from connexin36 knockout vs.

Molecular and functional asymmetry at a vertebrate electrical synapse.

Electrical synapses are abundant in the vertebrate brain, but their functional and molecular complexities are still poorly understood. We report here that electrical synapses between auditory afferents and goldfish Mauthner cells are constructed by apposition of hemichannels formed by two homologs of mammalian connexin 36 (Cx36) and that, while Cx35 is restricted to presynaptic hemiplaques, Cx34.7 is restricted to postsynaptic hemiplaques, forming heterotypic junctions.