TLR2 dimer-specific ligands selectively activate protein kinase C isoforms in Leishmania infection.

Of the thirteen Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in mice, TLR2 has a unique ability of forming heterodimers with TLR1 and TLR6. Such associations lead to selective cellular signalling and cellular responses such as cytokine expression. One of the signalling intermediates is protein kinase C (PKC); of which, eight isoforms are expressed in macrophages.

Type-1 interferons prolong the lifespan of neutrophils by interfering with members of the apoptotic cascade.

Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils (PMNs) are metabolically highly active phagocytes, present in abundant numbers in the circulation. These active cells take the onus of clearing invading pathogens by crowding at inflammatory sites in huge numbers. Though PMNs are extremely short living and die upon spontaneous apoptosis, extended lifespan has been observed among those cells arrive at the inflammation sites or tackle intracellular infections or face any microbial challenges.

Neutrophils: Interplay between host defense, cellular metabolism and intracellular infection.

Neutrophils are short-living innate immune cells present in abundance in the circulation and they provide the first line of defense against infection. Microbicidal effector functions of the immune cells are tightly linked with their metabolic state. Overall knowledge of the association of neutrophil defense with cellular metabolism is still elusive.

An Overview of Seasonal Changes in Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defence Parameters in Some Invertebrate and Vertebrate Species.

Antioxidant defence system, a highly conserved biochemical mechanism, protects organisms from harmful effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a by-product of metabolism. Both invertebrates and vertebrates are unable to modify environmental physical factors such as photoperiod, temperature, salinity, humidity, oxygen content, and food availability as per their requirement. Therefore, they have evolved mechanisms to modulate their metabolic pathways to cope their physiology with changing environmental challenges for survival.