Directed Forgetting and the Production Effect.

The item-based directed-forgetting effect is explained as a difference in how strongly people encode remember-cued over forget-cued targets. In contrast, the production effect is typically explained as a difference in the distinctiveness of the memory of produced over unproduced targets. The procedural alignment of the two effects - directing participants to remember or forget, produce or not - coupled with their different theoretical explanations (i.

Text validation: Overlooking discrepancies in question constructions.

There is converging evidence that readers monitor text coherence and consistency by immediate, nonstrategic processes of validation. The literature also offers numerous instances of deficient validation. A prominent example of the latter is that understanders tend to overlook discourse anomalies that are embedded in given (presupposed) sentence information.

Text validation: Overlooking consistency effect discrepancies.

The consistency effect, prevalent in the text comprehension literature, comprises longer reading times for inconsistent than equivalent consistent text continuations. It is widely interpreted as reflecting readers' effective "validation" of text coherence. However, there are also numerous phenomena of readers' deficient validation, sometimes collectively labelled "misinformation effects.

Validation of strongly presupposed text concepts in reading comprehension: Cleft constructions.

Accumulating evidence indicates that readers monitor the congruence and accuracy of text by processes of "validation." Validation is sometimes thwarted by the embedding of inaccuracies in sentence presuppositions (the ideas assumed by the writer to be previously familiar to the reader). However, we previously demonstrated that inaccurate sentence presuppositions inflate reading time (O'Brien & Albrecht's, 1992, "consistency effect") as much as focussed (nonpresupposed) concepts, which favours successful validation of sentence presuppositions (Singer, Solar, & Spear, 2017).

Validating presupposed versus focused text information.

There is extensive evidence that readers continually validate discourse accuracy and congruence, but that they may also overlook conspicuous text contradictions. Validation may be thwarted when the inaccurate ideas are embedded sentence presuppositions. In four experiments, we examined readers' validation of presupposed ("given") versus new text information.

False recognition of instruction-set lures.

False remembering has been examined using a variety of procedures, including the Deese-Roediger-McDermott procedure, the false fame procedure and the two-list recognition procedure. We present six experiments in a different empirical framework examining false recognition of words included in the experimental instructions (instruction-set lures). The data show that participants' false alarm rate to instruction-set lures was twice their false alarm rate to standard lures.

The offline production effect.

People remember words they say aloud better than ones they do not, a result called the production effect. The standing explanation for the production effect is that producing a word renders it distinctive in memory and thus memorable at test. Whereas it is now clear that motoric production benefits remembering over nonproduction, and that more intense motoric production benefits remembering to a greater extent than less intense motoric production, there has been no comparison of the memorial benefit conferred by motoric versus imagined production.