Photosynthate transfer from an autotrophic orchid to conspecific heterotrophic protocorms through a common mycorrhizal network.

The minute 'dust seeds' of some terrestrial orchids preferentially germinate and develop as mycoheterotrophic protocorms near conspecific adult plants. Here we test the hypothesis that mycorrhizal mycelial connections provide a direct pathway for transfer of recent photosynthate from conspecific green orchids to achlorophyllous protocorms. Mycelial networks of Ceratobasidium cornigerum connecting green Dactylorhiza fuchsii plants with developing achlorophyllous protocorms of the same species were established on oatmeal or water agar before the shoots of green plants were exposed to CO.

Context and Time Regulate Fear Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation in the Basolateral Amygdala Complex.

It is widely accepted that fear memories are consolidated through protein synthesis-dependent changes in the basolateral amygdala complex (BLA). However, recent studies show that protein synthesis is required to consolidate the memory of a new dangerous experience when it is similar to a prior experience. Here, we examined whether the protein synthesis requirement for consolidating the new experience varies with its spatial and temporal distance from the prior experience.

Elevated CO interacts with nutrient inputs to restructure plant communities in phosphorus-limited grasslands.

Globally pervasive increases in atmospheric CO and nitrogen (N) deposition could have substantial effects on plant communities, either directly or mediated by their interactions with soil nutrient limitation. While the direct consequences of N enrichment on plant communities are well documented, potential interactions with rising CO and globally widespread phosphorus (P) limitation remain poorly understood. We investigated the consequences of simultaneous elevated CO (eCO ) and N and P additions on grassland biodiversity, community and functional composition in P-limited grasslands.

What is Learned Determines How Pavlovian Conditioned Fear is Consolidated in the Brain.

Activity in the basolateral amygdala complex (BLA) is needed to encode fears acquired through contact with both innate sources of danger (i.e., things that are painful) and learned sources of danger (e.

Danger Changes the Way the Brain Consolidates Neutral Information; and Does So by Interacting with Processes Involved in the Encoding of That Information.

This study examined the effect of danger on consolidation of neutral information in two regions of the rat (male and female) medial temporal lobe: the perirhinal cortex (PRh) and basolateral amygdala complex (BLA). The neutral information was the association that forms between an auditory stimulus and a visual stimulus (labeled S2 and S1) across their pairings in sensory preconditioning. We show that, when the sensory preconditioning session is followed by a shocked context exposure, the danger shifts consolidation of the S2-S1 association from the PRh to the BLA; and does so by interacting with processes involved in encoding of the S2-S1 pairings.