Discovery of forgotten variola specimens at the National Institutes of Health in the USA.

In early July 2014, the National Institutes of Health in the USA discovered a few vials containing smallpox virus in their Bethesda, Maryland facility. The subsequent investigation, performed by US CDC, documented viable virus in two of the discovered vials that were subjected to tissue culture testing.

The certification of smallpox eradication and implications for guinea worm, poliomyelitis, and other diseases: confirming and maintaining a negative.

Rigorous, independent, confirmation of disease eradication is necessary to assure credibility of the claimed accomplishment. The criteria and procedures for formal certification of global disease freedom are based on the biological and epidemiological features of the pathogen and its manifestations. Certification activities by previously endemic and at-risk countries include comprehensive documentation focusing on surveillance, reports of national independent review groups, and special field surveys.

Safe landing for global polio eradication: a perspective.

After over two decades of immense efforts, the global polio eradication initiative may be approaching its final phase. With leadership from WHO, great efforts of national programs and support from its collaborators, combined with the recent use of mono and bivalent oral polio vaccines, success may be at hand. For a "safe landing" of this global program, it is important once more to recall the key role of routine vaccination as the foundation on which mass vaccination campaigns can be successful.

A personal recollection of smallpox eradication with the benefit of hindsight: in commemoration of 30th anniversary.

This year 2010 marks the 30th anniversary of smallpox eradication, as declared by the WHO Assembly in 1980. As someone who worked for this program for many years, I would like to present my recollection of how it succeeded and what lessons can be learnt, with the added benefit of hindsight. The program achieved the global unification of mankind despite differences in race, nationality, religion, and politics, and research contributed significantly to building the effective strategy that ultimately led to success.

Road map for polio eradication--establishing the link with Millennium Development Goal no. 4 for child survival.

The global polio eradication program, started in 1988, initially targeted the year 2000 for the worldwide elimination of the disease. Although poliovirus transmission has been markedly reduced, it has not been eliminated. As we enter the 20th year of the campaign, poliovirus continues to infect and cause paralysis in localized areas of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Distribution of HBV genotypes among HBV carriers in Benin:phylogenetic analysis and virological characteristics of HBV genotype E.

Aim: To determine the distribution of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes in Benin, and to clarify the virological characteristics of the dominant genotype.

Methods: Among 500 blood donors in Benin, 21 HBsAg-positive donors were enrolled in the study. HBV genotypes were determined by enzyme immunoassay and restriction fragment length polymorphism.

Smallpox vaccine and its stockpile in 2005.

Smallpox vaccine was the most important tool in the successful eradication of smallpox. In 1980, this achievement made it possible for all nations to cease smallpox vaccination. However, the threat of smallpox bioterrorism has made it necessary to reconsider the need for vaccination.

Role of a sentinel surveillance system in the context of global surveillance of infectious diseases.

In some nation states, sustained integrated global epidemiological surveillance has been weakened as a result of political unrest, disinterest, and a poorly developed infrastructure due to rapidly increasing global inequality. The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome has shown vividly the importance of sensitive worldwide surveillance. The Agency for Cooperation in International Health, a Japanese non-governmental organisation, has developed on a voluntary basis a sentinel surveillance system for selected target infectious diseases, covering South America, Africa, and Asia.

Eradication of infectious diseases: its concept, then and now.

The concept of disease eradication emerged as recently as the mid-20th century. The successful eradication of smallpox resulted in the concept of the extinction of the causative agent in man as well as in the environment, leading to the cessation of all control measures including vaccination. Subsequently, world resources have been invested in global polio eradication and measles eradication in the Western Hemisphere.

Distribution of hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes among HBV carriers in the Cote d'Ivoire: complete genome sequence and phylogenetic relatedness of HBV genotype E.

The characteristics of hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype E are not well known because only a few studies have been carried out by complete genome analysis. The aim of this study was to elucidate the distribution of HBV genotypes in Cote d'Ivoire, and to clarify the genotype-related characteristics of genotype E. The distribution of HBV genotypes among 48 HBV carriers in Cote d'Ivoire was determined using serological and genetic methods.

Duration of immunity after smallpox vaccination: a study on vaccination policy against smallpox bioterrorism in Japan.

The success of global smallpox eradication in 1980 led all the nations of the world to discontinue smallpox vaccination. To date, however, the threat of deliberate release of smallpox virus has led health authorities to reconsider smallpox vaccination and at the same time, to urge to evaluate duration of the immunity of the population vaccinated before 1980. Although available data is scarce and incomplete, the study suggests that protective immunity lasts longer in a good percentage of vaccinees, although the real percentage and duration are not known.

Cost-effectiveness of measles elimination in Latin America and the Caribbean: a prospective analysis.

Background: In 1994, the Americas set a goal of interrupting indigenous measles transmission from the Western Hemisphere by 2000. To accomplish this goal, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) developed an enhanced measles vaccination strategy.

Methods: Cost data was collected at PAHO for Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries covering 96% of the region's population on components of the routine programs, and the 'follow-up' activities from member countries.