Mathematical modeling of the push-pull effect for various acceleration profiles and countermeasures.

Background: The push-pull maneuver (PPM) can lead to loss of consciousness in pilots of high-performance aircraft. Modeling of the physical and physiological aspects of this phenomenon should allow improved countermeasures.

Methods: A structurally based mechanistic computer model was developed to incorporate dynamic carotid baroreflex responses and detailed modeling of vessel segments for different anatomic regions.