Considering Decoupled Phenotypic Diversification Between Ontogenetic Phases in Macroevolution: An Example Using Triggerfishes (Balistidae).

Across the Tree of Life, most studies of phenotypic disparity and diversification have been restricted to adult organisms. However, many lineages have distinct ontogenetic phases that differ from their adult forms in morphology and ecology. Focusing disproportionately on the evolution of adult forms unnecessarily hinders our understanding of the pressures shaping evolution over time.

Translational regulation and protein-coding capacity of the 5' untranslated region of human TREM2.

TREM2 is a transmembrane receptor expressed in microglia and macrophages. Elevated TREM2 levels in these cells are associated with age-related pathological conditions, including Alzheimer's disease. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying the protein expression of TREM2 remains unclear.

Dietary protein restriction during pregnancy and/or early weaning reduces the number of goblet cells in the small and large intestines of female mice pups.

Background: It remains unclear whether goblet cell numbers in offspring are altered by maternal nutritional status and/or early weaning. Herein, using a murine model, we clarified whether a low-protein (LP) diet during pregnancy and/or early weaning changes villus structures, goblet cell numbers, mucin intensity, and mucin mRNA expression in the mucosal layer throughout the intestines in mice offspring.

Methods: We examined villus-crypt structures and goblet cell numbers using hematoxylin-eosin staining.

Protein restriction during the fetal period upregulates IL1B and IL13 while suppressing Muc2 expression in the jejunum of mice after weaning.

Objective: Several recent studies have suggested that malnutrition during developmental periods affects organ function, including that of the small intestine, after birth. However, it is unclear whether carbohydrate or protein restriction during pregnancy affects the expression of mucins and cytokines within the small intestine of offspring.

Methods: We examined mRNA and protein expression of cytokines and a Muc2 by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot, respectively, in the jejunoileum of 28- and 46-d-old mice born from mothers fed a low-carbohydrate (LC) or low-protein (LP) diet compared with those born from mothers fed a control diet during pregnancy.