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By means of the analysis of three works (Dell'anima de' bruti [Of the soul of beasts], Sofilo Molossio, and Sofilo senza maschera [Sofilo without a mask]) of Alessandro Pascoli (1669-1757), the psysician and philosopher from Perugia, the article reconstructs his fluctuating thought with regard to the problem of sensation in animals, indicated as the problem of the "soul of beasts." Regarding this question, Pascoli oscillates between, on the one hand, the Cartesian theory, which considered animals similar to mechanical automatons, devoid of the capacity to experience sensations (that is say, devoid of "sensitivity"); and, on the other hand, the Church's scholastic-peripatetic doctrine that attributed to animals the capacity to feel, thus affirming the presence in them of a "sensitive soul," considered -as compared with the human one -imperfect, material, and mortal. In expounding the reasons and argumentations of the Cartesians, on the one hand, and of the ecclesiastic teachings, on the other, Pascoli manifests a substantial convergence with the former, but also the need, inasmuch as Catholic professor of medicine at the Sapienza University of Rome, to not deny the possibility of the latter.

Northerners versus southerners: Italian anthropology and psychology faced with the "southern question".

Following the Unification of Italy (1861), when confronted with the underdevelopment problems of the south that had given rise to the so-called "southern question," some Italian anthropologists and psychologists began to study the populations of the south from the psycho-anthropological point of view. These scientists, at times subject to preconceived ideas toward the southerners, conveyed observations and descriptions of the southern character traits that, in general, were considered different, in a negative sense, with respect to those of the northern peoples. To explain such diversity in the "psychological" characteristics between the north and south of the country (presumed cause also of the south's backwardness), various hypotheses were advanced related to the kind of heredity theory adopted, which could be of, more or less, an "innatist" or "transformist" or "environmentalist" kind.

Chemistry of the nudibranch Aldisa andersoni: structure and biological activity of phorbazole metabolites.

The first chemical study of the Indo-Pacific dorid nudibranch Aldisa andersoni resulted in the isolation of five chlorinated phenyl-pyrrolyloxazoles belonging to the phorbazole series. Two new molecules, 9-chloro-phorbazole D and N1-methyl-phorbazole A, co-occurring with known phorbazoles A, B and D, have been characterized. Phorbazoles were found to be present mainly in the external part of the mollusc.

Isolation of thuridillins D-F, diterpene metabolites from the Australian sacoglossan mollusk Thuridilla splendens; relative configuration of the epoxylactone ring.

This first chemical study of the sacoglossan mollusk Thuridilla splendens from Mooloolaba, South East Queensland, has resulted in the isolation of three new metabolites, thuridillins D-F (1-3), and one known metabolite, thuridillin A (4). Thuridillin D (1) was isolated by conventional flash chromatography on silica gel, while a mixture of thuridillins E (2) and F (3) was obtained by PTLC on AgNO(3)-impregnated silica gel. Thuridillins D-F were determined to be structurally related to thuridillin B (5); 1 possessed a hydroxy group at C-11, and 2 and 3 were Δ(10,11)- and Δ(11,12)-isomers, respectively.

Biosynthesis and cellular localization of functional polyketides in the gastropod mollusc Scaphander lignarius.

Opisthobranchs belong to a subclass of highly evolved and specialised marine gastropods that rely on the use of secondary metabolites for their survival. Here we report the full elucidation of the biosynthesis of aromatic metabolites, lignarenones, in one of these gastropods, the cephalaspidean Scaphander lignarius. Feeding experiments with ²H- and ¹³C-labelled precursors revealed a mixed acetate/propionate polyketide pathway primed by benzoic acid.

Tritoniopsins A-D, cladiellane-based diterpenes from the South China Sea nudibranch Tritoniopsis elegans and its prey Cladiella krempfi.

Four diterpenes, tritoniopsins A-D (1-4), have been isolated from the South China Sea nudibranch Tritoniopsis elegans and its prey, the soft coral Cladiella krempfi. They display an unprecedented pyran ring in the cladiellane framework, thus representing a novel cladiellane-based diterpene family. Their structures have been mainly characterized by NMR and mass spectrometric techniques, whereas the relative configuration of compound 1 was secured by X-ray analysis.

New triterpene oligoglycosides from the Caribbean sponge Erylus formosus.

Seven new triterpene glycosides, erylosides R(1) (1), T(1) (3), T(2) (4), T(3) (5), T(4) (6), T(5) (7), and T(6) (8) along with the known formoside (2) were isolated from the sponge Erylus formosus collected along the Caribbean coast of Mexico. Glycoside 1 was determined as a trisaccharide, glycoside 2 as a tetrasaccharide while glycosides 3-8 were hexasaccharide. Their carbohydrate chains were unprecedented and have never been found in oligosaccharides from other biological sources, except Erylus spp.

Trans-dimer D, a novel dimeric sesquiterpene with a bis-bisabolene skeleton from a Hainan sponge Axinyssa variabilis.

A novel bisabolene sesquiterpene dimer named trans-dimer D (1) and its diastereoisomer trans-dimer C (2) reported in our previous work have been isolated as an inseparable mixture in a ratio of 1.5:1 from the South China Sea sponge Axinyssa variabilis. The structure of 1 was determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis and by comparison of its NMR spectral data with those of structurally related compounds.

Structure and cytotoxicity of phidianidines A and B: first finding of 1,2,4-oxadiazole system in a marine natural product.

Two indole alkaloids, phidianidines A (1) and B (2), exhibiting an uncommon 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring linked to the indole system, have been isolated from the marine opisthobranch mollusk Phidiana militaris. The structures of the two metabolites have been elucidated by spectroscopic techniques. Phidianidines exhibit high cytotoxicity against tumor and nontumor mammalian cell lines in in vitro assays.

LIPOXYGENASE PRODUCTS IN MARINE DIATOMS: A CONCISE ANALYTICAL METHOD TO EXPLORE THE FUNCTIONAL POTENTIAL OF OXYLIPINS(1).

Oxylipins are oxygenated derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that act as chemical mediators in many ecological and physiological processes in marine and freshwater diatoms. The occurrence and distribution of these molecules are relatively widespread within the lineage with considerable species-specific differences due to the variability of both the fatty acids recognized as substrates and the enzymatic transformations. The present review provides a general introduction to recent studies on diatom oxylipins and describes an analytical method for the detection and assessment of these elusive molecules in laboratory and field samples.

Structure and synthesis of a unique isonitrile lipid isolated from the marine mollusk Actinocyclus papillatus.

The first chemical study of an Actinocyclidae nudibranch, Actinocyclus papillatus, resulted in the isolation of (-)-actisonitrile (1), a lipid based on a 1,3-propanediol ether skeleton. The structure was established by spectroscopic methods, whereas the absolute configuration of the chiral center was determined by comparing the optical properties of natural actisonitrile with those of (+)- and (-)-synthetic enantiomers, opportunely prepared. Both (-)- and (+)-actisonitrile were tested in preliminary in vitro cytotoxicity bioassays on tumor and nontumor mammalian cells.

Ten years of Italian historiography of psychology: a field in progress.

This article briefly outlines a picture of the activities and research conducted in Italy on the history of psychology during the last 10 years, focusing its attention on institutions, scholars, conferences, archives, journals, and so forth. At the dawn of the 21st century, the tradition of historical-psychological studies that developed in the last quarter of the 20th century has led to a renewed situation in teaching organization and research, with the emergence of several groups, especially at the universities of Rome "Sapienza", Bari, Milan-Bicocca, and Urbino, and of a second generation of young historians increasingly engaged on an international level. After a general survey conducted with historiometric method on the principal areas of research cultivated and on the themes dealt with, we mention a change that has occurred in the historiographical approach, a transition from a historiography addressed prevalently to the "history of ideas" to one that, pursuing the approach of a new and critical "multifactorial" history, proves to be more attentive to the social and institutional history, in correspondence with established international trends.

Coloration and defense in the nudibranch gastropod Hypselodoris fontandraui.

The striking color patterns of chromodorid (and other) nudibranchs appear to be indicative of aposematism. In Müllerian mimicry, all the mimic species have a defense mechanism. It has been proposed that a group of blue, white, and yellow Mediterranean and northeastern Atlantic species of the genus Hypselodoris form a Müllerian mimetic circle.

A new cytotoxic tambjamine alkaloid from the Azorean nudibranch Tambja ceutae.

The chemical investigation of Azorean nudibranch mollusk Tambja ceutae led us to isolate a new member of the tambjamine family, tambjamine K (1). The bryozoan Bugula dentata, prey of the nudibranch, was also analyzed and found to contain compound 1 in very small amounts together with known blue pigment 2 and tambjamines A (3) and B (4). The structure of tambjamine 1 was elucidated by the interpretation of the spectroscopic data as well as by the comparison with related compounds.

Rare casbane diterpenoids from the Hainan soft coral Sinularia depressa.

A series of nine casbane diterpenes, compounds 5-13, exhibiting either cis or trans ring junctions were isolated from the Hainan soft coral Sinularia depressa. The structures of this group of compounds, the basic member of which was named depressin (5), were established by detailed spectroscopic analysis. In addition, the absolute configuration of the main metabolite, 10-hydroxydepressin (7), and of its epimer, 1-epi-10-hydroxydepressin (8), was determined by a combination of conformational analysis and the modified Mosher's method.

15S-lipoxygenase metabolism in the marine diatom Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima.

In recent years, oxylipins (lipoxygenase-derived oxygenated fatty acid products) have been reported in several bloom-forming marine diatoms. Despite increasing attention on the ecophysiological role of these molecules in marine environments, their biosynthesis is largely unknown in these microalgae. Biochemical methods, including tandem mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance and radioactive probes were used to identify structures, enzymatic activities and growth-dependent modulation of oxylipin biosynthesis in the pennate diatom Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima.

Shaping the polypropionate biosynthesis in the solar-powered mollusc Elysia viridis.

Polypropionates that incorporate pyrones are a family of polyketides featuring the chemistry of a few marine molluscs capable of phototrophic CO(2) fixation as a result of storing viable symbiotic chloroplasts in their bodies. The role and origin of these molecules is poorly investigated, although the unusual biological activities and chemistry of these natural products have recently received renewed interest. Here, we report the results of in vivo studies on production of gamma-pyrone-containing polypropionates in the Mediterranean mollusc Elysia viridis.

Biosynthetic evidence supporting the generation of terpene chemodiversity in marine mollusks of the genus Doriopsilla.

This paper reports the study of terpene biosynthesis in the marine nudibranch Doriopsilla pelseneeri. In vivo feeding experiments with 13C-glucose proved the de novo origin of the terpene metabolites via a mevalonate pathway. Characterization of the stereochemical relationship of the new acetyl pelseneeriols (7 and 8) suggests a two-step mechanism for the sesquiterpene cyclization, leading to a slight refinement of terpene tailoring in this family of marine invertebrates.

First biosynthetic evidence on the phenyl-containing polyketides of the marine mollusc Scaphander lignarius.

The biosynthesis of lignarenones 1 and 2, the major polyketides of the Mediterranean mollusc Scaphander lignarius is described. The process is primed by benzoic acid and requires acetate and propionate as extender units. The labeling pattern suggests PKS-like synthesis of an unusual E,Z,E-triene chain and origin of the benzoate unit from phenylalanine.

Factors promoting marine invasions: a chemoecological approach.

The Mediterranean Sea is losing its biological distinctiveness, and the same phenomenon is occurring in other seas. It gives urgency to a better understanding of the factors that affect marine biological invasions. A chemoecological approach is proposed here to define biotic conditions that promote biological invasions in terms of enemy escape and resource opportunities.

Chemistry of Glossodoris nudibranchs: specific occurrence of 12-keto scalaranes.

With the aim of establishing whether the oxidation of the tricyclic carbon skeleton of scalaradial (1) is specific to Glossodoris mollusks, the chemical investigation of specimens of Glossodoris pallida from two distinct geographical areas (China and Guam) and of Glossodoris vespa and Glossodoris averni from Eastern Australia was performed. 12-Deacetoxy-12-oxo-scalaradial (4), recently reported from another Glossodoris nudibranch, was the main metabolite of G. pallida from China, G.