TGFβ in Pancreas and Colorectal Cancer: Opportunities to Overcome Therapeutic Resistance.

TGFβ is a pleiotropic signaling pathway that plays a pivotal role in regulating a multitude of cellular functions. TGFβ has a dual role in cell regulation where it induces growth inhibition and cell death; however, it can switch to a growth-promoting state under cancerous conditions. TGFβ is upregulated in colorectal cancer and pancreatic cancer, altering the tumor microenvironment and immune system and promoting a mesenchymal state.

TGFBR1*6A as a modifier of breast cancer risk and progression: advances and future prospects.

There is growing evidence that germline mutations in certain genes influence cancer susceptibility, tumor evolution, as well as clinical outcomes. Identification of a disease-causing genetic variant enables testing and diagnosis of at-risk individuals. For breast cancer, several genes such as BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, and CHEK2 act as high- to moderate-penetrance cancer susceptibility genes.