H9N2 influenza A viruses found to be enzootic in Punjab Pakistan's bird markets with evidence of human H9N2 nasal colonization.

Objectives: This study sought to detect and characterize influenza A (IAV) and influenza D (IDV) viruses circulating among commercial birds and shop owners in Pakistan's live bird markets.

Methods: Oropharyngeal swabs (n = 600; n = 300 pools) collected from poultry and nasopharyngeal swabs (n = 240) collected from poultry workers were studied for molecular evidence of IAV and IDV using real-time and conventional real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction protocols.

Results: Nineteen (6.

Vaccine Adjuvants: Selection Criteria, Mechanism of Action Associated with Immune Responses and Future Directions.

The most effective method to minimize the prevalence of infectious diseases is vaccination. Vaccines enhance immunity and provide protection against different kinds of infections. Subunit vaccines are safe and less toxic, but due to their lower immunogenicity, they need adjuvants to boost the immune system.