Stochastic convergence of ecological footprint: new insights from a unit root test based on smooth transitions and nonlinear adjustment.

The ecological footprint has currently become a highly popular environmental performance indicator. It provides the basis for setting goals, identifying options for action, and tracking progress toward stated goals. Because the examination of the existence of convergence is important for the climate change protection of the earth, the convergence of ecological footprint and its subcomponents are a major concern for scholars and policymakers.

Testing the long-run impact of economic growth, energy consumption, and globalization on ecological footprint: new evidence from Fourier bootstrap ARDL and Fourier bootstrap Toda-Yamamoto test results.

The aim of this study is to investigate the impacts of economic growth, energy consumption, and the economic globalization process on ecological footprints in the top 10 countries that cause the highest carbon dioxide emissions in the world. The analyses were conducted on annual observations from 1970 to 2017 (a different range for each country) employing the Fourier bootstrap ARDL cointegration method developed by Yilanci et al. (2020) and the Fourier bootstrap Toda-Yamamoto causality method developed by Nazlioglu et al.