When can embryos learn? A test of the timing of learning in embryonic amphibians.

Learning is crucial to the survival of organisms across their life span, including during embryonic development. We set out to determine when learning becomes possible in amphibian development by exposing spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) embryos to chemical stimuli from a predator (Ambystoma opacum), nonpredator (Lithobates clamitans), or control at developmental stages 16-21 or 36-38 (Harrison 1969). Once exposures were completed and embryos hatched, we recorded the number of movements and time spent moving of individuals in both groups and all treatments.