[Urinary lithiasis, a disease followed through its historical footprints.].

Objetive: Through two historic episodes we find that they are closely related with urinary lithiasis.

Methods: The cases are described and documented in the same historical account.

Results: The lithiasic disease of two historical known characters.

[A child's memory.].

Objectives: It is exceptional that the data of a disease are taken from a historical account in which the author, King Alfonso X the Wise himself, in one of the songs (Cantigas) to Mary, the Virgin (monument of universal literature), recites the facts from his childhood in the city of Cuenca, in the middle of August of 1226. These Facts had a great resonance.

Methods: The medical studies were in full decay that did not improve until the creation of the Universities (Paris, Naples, Padua, Bologna and Montpellier).

[The clinical session that never happened.].

Objectives: Every illness provides signs that enable diagnosis no matter how hidden they may be, even in a 3.000 years old mummy thanks to the advances in medicine and similarity with other known cases of osseous lithiasis.

Methods: We have analyzed the features of its localization (bladder, ureteral or renal); knowledge got its way to allow today the answer to the final arcane enigma.

[Upper urinary tract urothelial tumor. Antegrade percutaneous management].

Objectives: Upper urinary tract tumors account for 2-4% of urinary tract tumors and 5% of urothelial tumors. The pyelocalyceal system (75%) and distal third of the ureter are the most frequent locolizations. Various series confirm a relatively benign course of low grade and stage tumors, with survivals around 80-66% for pyelic and ureteral tumors respectively.

[Antegrade and retrograde endourological techniques. Equipment and methodology].

Low grade and stage upper urinary tract tumors may be treated endoscopically by antegrade or retrograde approach. The approach mainly depends on tumor size and site. Generally, retrograde ureteroscopy is used for small size tumors of the ureter and kidney, whereas the antegrade approach is indicated for bigger tumors in the upper ureter or kidney, or those tumors which cannot be adequately managed in a retrograde manner because of their site (lower calyx) or previous urinary diversion.

[Nanobacteria and urinary system lithiasis].

The presence of microorganisms in certain renal calculi having been demonstrated; currently, there is a debate about the possibility of certain germs of extremely small size, Nanobacteria, which can have an important role in the general theory of lithogenesis.

Characteristics of nanobacteria and their possible role in stone formation.

Kidney stone formation is a multifactorial disease in which the defence mechanisms and risk factors are imbalanced in favour of stone formation. We have proposed a novel infectious agent, mineral forming nanobacteria (NB), to be active nidi that attach to, invade and damage the urinary epithelium of collecting ducts and papilla forming the calcium phosphate center(s) found in most kidney stones. Stone formation may proceed in urine supersaturated with calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate and uric acid/urate under the influence of crystallization promoters and inhibitors.