Molecular mechanism of DNA damage induced by titanium dioxide nanoparticles in toll-like receptor 3 or 4 expressing human hepatocarcinoma cell lines.

Background: Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) are widely used in the biological sciences. The increasing use of TiO2 NPs increases the risk of humans and the environment being exposed to NPs. We previously showed that toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in the interactions between NPs and cells.