The role of dose-rate on risk from internally-deposited radionuclides and the potential need to separate dose-rate effectiveness factor (DREF) from the dose and dose-rate effectiveness factor (DDREF).

In 1980, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements suggested the term dose-rate effectiveness factor (DREF) to describe the reduction of effectiveness of protracted radiation in producing biological damage and risk. A nonlinear decrease in damage was also noted following low total doses. The International Commission on Radiological Protection therefore combined the influence of low dose and low dose-rate and assigned a single value of 2.

Calmodulin mediates DNA repair pathways involving H2AX in response to low-dose radiation exposure of RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms that modulate macrophage radioresistance is necessary for the development of effective radiation therapies, as tumor-associated macrophages promote both angiogenesis and matrix remodeling that, in turn, enhance tumor metastasis. In this respect, we have identified a dose-dependent increase in the abundance (i.e.