The recommendation for learners to be provided with control over their feedback schedule is questioned in a self-controlled learning paradigm.

Evidence that self-controlled feedback schedules are more effective for motor learning than yoked or predetermined schedules has been used to forward the recommendation that practitioners should provide choice to learners over when they would like to receive feedback. This recommendation can be questioned because the typical comparison groups in such experimentation do not well represent the applied setting. Consequently, comparison groups that better map onto the applied setting are needed.

Varied speeds of video demonstration do not influence the learning of a dance skill.

The effects of slow-motion and real time video speed demonstration, under mixed-modeling conditions (skilled model plus self-observation), were examined to identify whether there was an optimal demonstration speed, or combination thereof, for learning the dance pirouette en dehors skill. Fifty-one participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups with different video demonstration speeds: (1) slow-motion, (2) real-time, or (3) a combination of slow-motion and real-time. Following a pre-test, participants completed eight blocks of nine training trials (comprised of five physical and four observational practice trials).

Autonomy Support via Instructionally Irrelevant Choice Not Beneficial for Motor Performance or Learning.

: The Optimizing Performance Through Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) theory predicts that providing learners with choices during skill acquisition will enhance their acquisition performance, motor learning, and expectancies. Based on this theory, it is recommended that instructors ask learners to choose which tasks to practice in applied settings. This experiment tested these predictions and recommendation by crossing autonomy support with practice schedule in a 2 × 2 factorial design.

Autonomy support and reduced feedback frequency have trivial effects on learning and performance of a golf putting task.

Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) Theory proposes that choices of any kind support an individual's need for autonomy, motivating them to learn and perform motor skills more effectively. Notably, the authors suggest asking learners to choose when to receive feedback in order to increase autonomy. Conversely, the guidance hypothesis predicts an impact of feedback schedule independent of motivational influences.

Revisiting the Applied Model for the Use of Observation: A Review of Articles Spanning 2011-2018.

: To provide a review of current articles that have used observation interventions to enhance motor skill acquisition or performance of applied tasks, and to situate the research within the Applied Model for the Use of Observation (AMUO) with the goal of forming a basis for evidence-based guidelines for practitioners. : Key words (e.g.

Variations in observation frequency in a self-controlled learning environment do not modulate learning of a pirouette en dehors.

Little is known about the optimal frequency to observe a skilled model, yet this is potentially an important learning variable, and thus was examined in the context of self-controlled learning conditions. Participants chose the schedule in which they interspersed both physical and observational trials of a dance skill. The participants' choice, however, was governed by an imposed observation frequency (OF) of either 25%, 50%, or 75%.

Feedforward Self-Modeling and Self-Regulation: It's Not Just for Learning.

: This research investigated whether Zimmerman's model of self-regulated learning could be transferred into a competitive setting. We also investigated whether a feedforward self-modeling video could influence one's use of self-regulation and as such be an effective self-regulatory intervention. : Nine competitive gymnasts took part in two interviews; one interview was conducted after a competition in which the video was viewed (experimental interview: EI) and the other after a competition where no video was seen (control interview: CI).

Examining the impact of error estimation on the effects of self-controlled feedback.

Two experiments were conducted that examined the motivational and informational perspectives concerning learning advantages from self-controlled practice. Three groups were tasked with learning a novel skill; self-controlled (SC), yoked traditional (YT), and yoked with error estimation required during the acquisition phase (YE). Results from the delayed learning measures showed the YE group performed better than the SC and YT groups, for Expt.

Observing different model types interspersed with physical practice has no effect on consolidation or motor learning of an elbow flexion-extension task.

We compared varied model types and their potential differential effects on learning outcomes and consolidation processes when observational practice was interspersed with physical practice. Participants (N = 75) were randomly assigned to one of five groups: (1) unskilled model observation, (2) skilled model observation, (3) mixed-model observation, (4) physical practice only, and (5) no observational or physical practice (control). All were tasked with learning a waveform-matching task.

Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the primary motor cortex does not enhance the learning benefits of self-controlled feedback schedules.

A distinct learning advantage has been shown when participants control their knowledge of results (KR) scheduling during practice compared to when the same KR schedule is imposed on the learner without choice (i.e., yoked schedules).

Not all choices are created equal: Task-relevant choices enhance motor learning compared to task-irrelevant choices.

Lewthwaite et al. (2015) reported that the learning benefits of exercising choice (i.e.

An interpolated activity during the knowledge-of-results delay interval eliminates the learning advantages of self-controlled feedback schedules.

The learning advantages of self-controlled knowledge-of-results (KR) schedules compared to yoked schedules have been linked to the optimization of the informational value of the KR received for the enhancement of one's error-detection capabilities. This suggests that information-processing activities that occur after motor execution, but prior to receiving KR (i.e.

Self-controlled learning benefits: exploring contributions of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation via path analysis.

Research has shown learning advantages for self-controlled practice contexts relative to yoked (i.e., experimenter-imposed) contexts; yet, explanations for this phenomenon remain relatively untested.

Judgments of learning are significantly higher following feedback on relatively good versus relatively poor trials despite no actual learning differences.

Studies have consistently shown that prospective metacognitive judgments of learning are often inaccurate because humans mistakenly interpret current performance levels as valid indices of learning. These metacognitive discrepancies are strongly related to conditions of practice. Here, we examined how the type of feedback (after good versus poor trials) received during practice and awareness (aware versus unaware) of this manipulation affected judgments of learning and actual learning.

Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner's performance: a replication and extension of Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005).

The learning advantages of self-controlled feedback schedules compared to yoked schedules have been attributed to motivational influences and/or information processing activities with many researchers adopting the motivational perspective in recent years. Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005) found that feedback decisions made before (Self-Before) or after a trial (Self-After) resulted in similar retention performance, but superior transfer performance resulted when the decision to receive feedback occurred after a trial. They suggested that the superior skill transfer of the Self-After group likely emerged from information processing activities such as error estimation.

Describing strategies used by elite, intermediate, and novice ice hockey referees.

Unlabelled: Much is known about sport officials' decisions (e.g., anticipation, visual search, and prior experience).

Coach selections and the relative age effect in male youth ice hockey.

Unlabelled: Relative age effects (RAEs; when relatively older children possess participation and performance advantages over relatively younger children) are frequent in male team sports. One possible explanation is that coaches select players based on physical attributes, which are more likely witnessed in relatively older athletes.

Purpose: To determine if coach selections are responsible for RAEs by comparing RAEs in male players who played competitive versus noncompetitive ice hockey.

Learner-Controlled Self-Observation is Advantageous for Motor Skill Acquisition.

There were two main objectives of this research. First, we wanted to examine whether video feedback of the self (self-observation) was more effective for motor skill learning when the choice to view the video was provided to the learner (learner-controlled, LC) as opposed to an experimenter-controlled (EC) delivery. Secondly, we explored whether there were differences in the self-regulatory processes of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, as well as perceived choice between the LC and EC conditions.

Effects of a rule change that eliminates body-checking on the relative age effect in Ontario minor ice hockey.

Relative age effects in sport reflect an over-representation of athletes born early in a selection year that lead to selection and performance advantages. These effects might be enhanced by rules that increase physicality. An opportunity to investigate these influences arose when Hockey Canada altered its body-checking rules.

Feedforward self-modeling enhances skill acquisition in children learning trampoline skills.

The purpose of this research was to examine whether children would benefit from a feedforward self-modeling (FSM) video and to explore possible explanatory mechanisms for the potential benefits, using a self-regulation framework. To this end, children were involved in learning two five-skill trampoline routines. For one of the routines, a FSM video was provided during acquisition, whereas only verbal instructions were provided for the alternate routine.

The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on children's self-regulation of learning and swimming performance.

We compared two self-as-a-model interventions: self-modelling (viewing oneself perform an adaptive behaviour) and self-observation (viewing oneself perform at current skill level). Operating within Zimmerman's (1989, 2000) theory of self-regulated learning, we examined the effect of the modelling interventions on three self-regulatory processes (self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and self-satisfaction), as well as physical performance. Thirty-three children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups.

High levels of contextual interference enhance handwriting skill acquisition.

The authors conducted 3 experiments to examine whether introducing high levels of contextual interference is useful in handwriting skill acquisition. For all experiments, elementary school students (Ns = 44, 50, and 78, respectively) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 practice schedules-blocked or random practice-in the acquisition phase. In the blocked condition, each of 3 letters (h, a, and y) or (in Experiment 1) symbols was handwritten 24 times consecutively.

Decision-making by experienced rugby referees: use of perceptual information and episodic memory.

The expertise paradigm was used in two studies to examine decision-making by rugby referees. Videoclips were used to assess infraction detection and knowledge base, or sources of information used. In Study 1, referees of high and low experience were compared, and in Study 2 referees and players were compared.