Using the Social-Ecological Model to Assess Vaccine Hesitancy and Refusal in a Highly Religious Lower-Middle-Income Country.

(1) Background: The aim of this study was to understand the factors associated with vaccine hesitancy and refusal in Indonesia using the Social-Ecological Model (SEM). (2) Methods: Data on demographics, religiosity, family dynamics, and perceptions of public health efforts were collected through an online survey and compared to the rates of vaccine hesitancy and refusal. (3) Results: Income and sex were significantly associated with vaccine hesitancy.