Correction: Using machine learning to understand age and gender classification based on infant temperament.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.

Promoting toddlers' self-regulation and healthy eating habits among families living in poverty: A randomized controlled trial of Recipe 4 Success.

The Recipe 4 Success preventive intervention targeted multiple factors critical to the health and well-being of toddlers living in poverty. This randomized controlled trial, which was embedded within Early Head Start home visits for 12 weeks, included 242 racially and ethnically diverse families (51% girls; toddler mean age = 2.58 years; data collected 2016-2019).

Estimation of nonlinear mixed-effects continuous-time models using the continuous-discrete extended Kalman filter.

Many intensive longitudinal measurements are collected at irregularly spaced time intervals, and involve complex, possibly nonlinear and heterogeneous patterns of change. Effective modelling of such change processes requires continuous-time differential equation models that may be nonlinear and include mixed effects in the parameters. One approach of fitting such models is to define random effect variables as additional latent variables in a stochastic differential equation (SDE) model of choice, and use estimation algorithms designed for fitting SDE models, such as the continuous-discrete extended Kalman filter (CDEKF) approach implemented in the dynr R package, to estimate the random effect variables as latent variables.

Person-centered profiles of child temperament: A comparison of coder, mother, and experimenter ratings.

This study compared person-centered temperament group classifications derived from latent profile analyses on maternal reports, post-visit experimenter ratings, and task-based coder-rated behaviors at 18 months of age. Toddlers (N = 148) completed a laboratory visit with tasks intended to assess temperament and early regulatory abilities. Following the visit, experimenters rated child temperament using the Infant Behavior Record and coders rated toddlers' approach-withdrawal, affect, and regulatory behaviors across several laboratory tasks.

Using machine learning to understand age and gender classification based on infant temperament.

Age and gender differences are prominent in the temperament literature, with the former particularly salient in infancy and the latter noted as early as the first year of life. This study represents a meta-analysis utilizing Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) data collected across multiple laboratories (N = 4438) to overcome limitations of smaller samples in elucidating links among temperament, age, and gender in early childhood. Algorithmic modeling techniques were leveraged to discern the extent to which the 14 IBQ-R subscale scores accurately classified participating children as boys (n = 2,298) and girls (n = 2,093), and into three age groups: youngest (< 24 weeks; n = 1,102), mid-range (24 to 48 weeks; n = 2,557), and oldest (> 48 weeks; n = 779).

Improving Toddlers' Healthy Eating Habits and Self-regulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Objectives: In this study, we tested whether Recipe 4 Success, a preventive intervention featuring structured food preparation lessons, was successful in improving the following 4 protective factors related to overweight and obesity among families living in poverty: toddlers' healthy eating habits, toddlers' self-regulation, parents' responsive feeding practices, and parents' sensitive scaffolding.

Methods: This randomized controlled trial was open to families enrolled in Early Head Start home visits and included 73 parents and their toddlers aged 18 to 36 months. Multimethod assessments were conducted at baseline and posttreatment.

A laboratory-based assessment of mother-child snack food selections and child snack food consumption: Associations with observed and maternal self-report of child feeding practices.

This study explored how mothers' observed and self-reported child feeding practices (child control over food choices, encouragement of balance and variety, and teaching about nutrition) were associated with mother-child snack food selections and child snack food consumption in a laboratory setting. Mothers ( = 107) and their 4.5-year-old children (52% female) selected up to 5 snack foods (out of 9 snack foods: 6 higher-energy-density [ED] and 3 lower-ED) for optional child consumption throughout a one-hour laboratory visit.

It takes two: Infants' moderate negative reactivity and maternal sensitivity predict self-regulation in the preschool years.

The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the association of infant fussing and crying with self-regulation in toddlerhood and the preschool years, as well as the moderating role of maternal sensitivity therein. When children ( = 149, 53.69% boys) were 6 months old, parents reported on their fussing and crying using a cry diary, and maternal sensitivity was coded during a novel toy procedure.

Temperament in obesity-related research: Concepts, challenges, and considerations for future research.

Temperament, defined as individual differences in reactivity and regulation, has important implications for the development of childhood obesity. Indeed, numerous studies have demonstrated associations between temperament and children's eating behavior, parent feeding practices, and children's weight outcomes. Together, these findings have significantly improved our understanding of the developmental pathways to obesity-related outcomes.

Typologies of dyadic mother-infant emotion regulation following immunization.

Mother-infant dyadic emotion regulation - the joint modulation of affective rhythms as interactive partners dynamically respond to each other across time - has been shown to promote social-emotional wellbeing both during and beyond infancy. Although contributions of dyadic regulation to self-regulatory development may particularly apparent during infant distress, studies have traditionally examined dyadic regulation in low-stress contexts. The present study addresses this gap by identifying distinct patterns of mother-infant dyadic emotion regulation following a highly distressing immunization procedure and then examining how these groups differed in mother and infant personality and temperament characteristics.

Interactive effects of parenting behavior and regulatory skills in toddlerhood on child weight outcomes.

Objectives: There is limited research investigating whether maternal behaviors exhibited during non-feeding contexts play a role in the development of obesity, and whether this association varies based on children's emerging regulatory skills. The objective of this study was to investigate interactions between maternal behaviors and toddler regulation predicting child BMI z-scores (BMIZ) at 4.5 years.

Infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe predict change in weight-for-length across infancy: early risk factors for childhood obesity.

Objectives: Greater weight gain in infancy is a risk factor for childhood obesity. The present study examined the interaction between infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe infant distress (FTS) as predictors of weight gain across the first 2 years of life.

Subjects/methods: A total of 160 mother-infant dyads were recruited into a longitudinal study.

Does Temperament Underlie Infant Novel Food Responses?: Continuity of Approach-Withdrawal From 6 to 18 Months.

This study investigated whether temperamental approach-withdrawal underlies infants' responses to novel foods. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of mother-infant dyads (n = 136). Approach-withdrawal responses to novel foods and novel toys were coded when infants were 6 and 12 months of age.

Exuberant and inhibited children: Person-centered profiles and links to social adjustment.

The current study aimed to substantiate and extend our understanding regarding the existence and developmental pathways of 3 distinct temperament profiles-exuberant, inhibited, and average approach-in a sample of 3.5-year-old children (n = 121). The interactions between temperamental styles and specific types of effortful control, inhibitory control and attentional control, were also examined in predicting kindergarten peer acceptance.

Predicting toddler temperamental approach-withdrawal: Contributions of early approach tendencies, parenting behavior, and contextual novelty.

Research suggests that temperamental approach-withdrawal is subject to parenting influences, but few studies have explored how specific parenting behaviors and contextual novelty contribute to the observed pattern of effects. The present study examined associations between infant temperamental approach, mother behavior while introducing novel objects (12 months) and temperamental approach-withdrawal in toddlerhood (18 months) in a sample of 132 infants (68 males). Maternal positive affect predicted more toddler approach-withdrawal for high-approach infants and maternal stimulation predicted less toddler approach-withdrawal for low-approach infants; however, these patterns varied with intensity of novelty in both parenting and toddler outcome contexts.

Temperamental approach/withdrawal and food neophobia in early childhood: Concurrent and longitudinal associations.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether temperamental approach/withdrawal processes were concurrently and longitudinally associated with parent ratings and behavioral observations of food neophobia at 4.5 years of age. Additionally, maternal feeding practices were examined as potential moderators of the association between toddler temperament and food neophobia.

Modeling dyadic processes using Hidden Markov Models: A time series approach to mother-infant interactions during infant immunization.

The focus of the present longitudinal study, to examine mother-infant interaction during the administration of immunizations at two and six months of age, used hidden Markov modeling, a time series approach that produces latent states to describe how mothers and infants work together to bring the infant to a soothed state. Results revealed a 4-state model for the dyadic responses to a two-month inoculation whereas a 6-state model best described the dyadic process at six months. Two of the states at two months and three of the states at six months suggested a progression from high intensity crying to no crying with parents using vestibular and auditory soothing methods.

Observed temperament from ages 6 to 36 months predicts parent- and teacher-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in first grade.

This study tested the prospective association between observational indicators of temperament, which were obtained across multiple assessments when children were 6-36 months of age, and parent and teacher reports of children's attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviors, when children were in first grade. Data were drawn from the Family Life Project and included 1,074 children for whom temperament and either parent- or teacher-reported ADHD behavioral data were available. The results of variable-centered regression models indicated that individual differences in temperament regulation, but not temperamental reactivity, was uniquely predictive of parent- and teacher-reported ADHD behaviors.

Stability of food neophobia from infancy through early childhood.

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether rejection of novel foods during infancy predicted child behavioral and parent-reported neophobia at 4.5 years of age. Data for the present study were drawn from a longitudinal study following individuals (n = 82) from infancy through early childhood.

Understanding and measuring parent use of food to soothe infant and toddler distress: A longitudinal study from 6 to 18 months of age.

The present study examined the development of parent use of food to soothe infant distress by examining this feeding practice longitudinally when infants were 6, 12 and 18 months of age. Two measures of feeding to soothe were obtained: parent self-report and observations of food to soothe during each laboratory visit. Demographic and maternal predictors of food to soothe were examined as well as the outcome, infant weight gain.

Infant and maternal predictors of early life feeding decisions. The timing of solid food introduction.

There is limited research on the maternal and infant characteristics associated with the timing of solid food introduction. The current study examined how maternal feeding style and infant temperament independently and interactively predicted the age at which infants were introduced to solid food. Data from 115 predominately white, middle-class mothers were collected when infants were 4 and 6 months of age.

Temperament, Parenting, and Moral Development: Specificity of Behavior and Context.

This longitudinal study highlights the role of specific parenting behaviors in specific contexts when predicting moral development in children of varying temperament types. A sample of mother-child dyads took part in a competing demands task involving differing "do" and "don't" contextual demands when the child was 2 years of age. Child temperament was also assessed at this time, yielding inhibited, exuberant, and low-reactive temperament groups.

The epidemiology of observed temperament: Factor structure and demographic group differences.

This study investigated the factor structure of observational indicators of children's temperament that were collected across the first three years of life in the Family Life Project (N=1205) sample. A four-factor model (activity level, fear, anger, regulation), which corresponded broadly to Rothbart's distinction between reactivity and regulation, provided an acceptable fit the observed data. Tests of measurement invariance demonstrated that a majority of the observational indicators exhibited comparable measurement properties for male vs.

Longitudinal associations between temperament and socioemotional outcomes in young children: the moderating role of RSA and gender.

Temperament is an important predictor of socioemotional adjustment, such as externalizing and internalizing symptoms. However, there is not a one-to-one correspondence between temperamental predispositions and these outcomes, implying that other factors also contribute to the development of internalizing and externalizing problems. Self-regulation is believed to interact with temperament, and has been studied as a predictor for later socioemotional outcomes.

Infant temperament and feeding history predict infants' responses to novel foods.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether infant temperament and previous feeding history were associated with infants' acceptance and rejection of a novel food at 12 months of age. Mother-infant dyads (n = 89) were video-recorded during a novel food (hummus, cottage cheese) feeding task. Infants' reactions (acceptance and rejection behaviors) and maternal responsiveness and affect during the interaction were coded from the recordings by teams of coders.