Nonhuman primate abnormal behavior: Etiology, assessment, and treatment.

Across captive settings, nonhuman primates may develop an array of abnormal behaviors including stereotypic and self-injurious behavior. Abnormal behavior can indicate a state of poor welfare, since it is often associated with a suboptimal environment. However, this may not always be the case as some behaviors can develop independently of any psychological distress, be triggered in environments known to promote welfare, and be part of an animal's coping mechanism.

Effect of Pregnancy and Age on Alopecia in Adult Female Baboons ( spp).

Alopecia occurs frequently in captive populations of nonhuman primates. Because multiple factors can play a role in alopecia, a better understanding of its etiology will help identify potential welfare concerns. The purpose of this study was to investigate risk factors for alopecia in a breeding colony of baboons with a focus on pregnancy and age.

Hair cortisol in captive corral-housed baboons.

Hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) are measures of long-term hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) activity and can be used as indicators of chronic stress. However, intrinsic factors such as an animal's age and sex can also have an impact on resulting HCCs. Although baboons are commonly studied in captivity, little is known about baseline HCC in this population.

Alopecia in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Association with pregnancy and chronic stress.

Background: Alopecia in captive non-human primates is often presented as a welfare issue. However, it is a complex condition with a number of possible causes. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of pregnancy and hair cortisol concentrations on alopecia in rhesus macaques.

Survey of Behavioral Indices of Welfare in Research Chimpanzees () in the United States.

Chimpanzees demand specialized housing and care and the highest degree of attention to animal welfare. The current project used a survey method to collate information on chimpanzee housing and behavioral indices of welfare across all 6 of the chimpanzee research facilities in the United States. Data were compiled on 701 chimpanzees ranging from 2 to 62 y old (mean age, 26.

Porches as Enrichment for Singly Housed Cynomolgus Macaques ().

Effective environmental enrichment is used by animals, promotes species-typical behavior, and decreases abnormal behavior. Porches attached to the front of an animal's cage provide additional space, perching opportunities, and a better view of the surroundings. Here we assessed the effectiveness of porches as a form of enrichment and identified characteristics of the animals most likely to use the porches.

A cross-species comparison of abnormal behavior in three species of singly-housed old world monkeys.

Abnormal behavior occurs in a number of captive nonhuman primate species and is often used as an indicator of welfare. However, reported levels of abnormal behavior often vary across species, making general welfare judgments difficult. The purpose of this study was to assess differences in levels of abnormal behavior and associated risk factors across three species of Old World monkeys in order to identify similarities and differences across species.

Factors influencing alopecia and hair cortisol in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Background: Alopecia can occur in captive non-human primates, but its etiology is poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to assess alopecia and hair cortisol in rhesus monkeys and to identify the potential risk factors.

Methods: Subjects were 117 rhesus monkeys at two National Primate Research Centers.

Assessing significant (>30%) alopecia as a possible biomarker for stress in captive rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).

Hair loss is common in macaque colonies. Very little is known about the relationship between psychological stress and hair loss. We initially examined alopecia and hair cortisol concentrations in 198 (89 male) rhesus macaques from three primate centers and demonstrated replicability of our previous finding that extensive alopecia (>30% hair loss) is associated with increased chronic cortisol concentrations and significantly affected by facility.

Responses to the Human Intruder Test are related to hair cortisol phenotype and sex in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Measurement of cortisol in hair provides a chronic index of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and has been applied to assessments of temperament (stable behavioral differences between individuals). However, the extent to which chronically high HPA axis activity relates to a correspondingly high degree of behavioral reactivity is as yet unknown. Therefore, the goal of the present experiment was to assess the relationship between hair cortisol and a reactive temperament.

The correlation between alopecia and temperament in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at four primate facilities.

Alopecia is a ubiquitous, multifaceted problem at facilities caring for captive rhesus macaques. There is a wide range of potential etiologies for the hair loss, including compromised immune function, dermatological pathologies, and environmental factors. However, few studies have examined whether various temperamental traits affect vulnerability to develop alopecia.

Alopecia in Outdoor Group- and Corral-Housed Baboons (Papio hamadryas spp.).

Alopecia has been reported to occur in several species of captive NHP. Much of this research has focused on macaque monkeys; whether other primate species such as baboons are affected similarly is unknown. Because alopecia can be a focus of inspectors and a possible marker of wellbeing, the purpose of the current study was to survey the occurrence of alopecia in 2 baboon populations and to identify potential risk factors.

The Effect of a Feeding Schedule Change and the Provision of Forage Material on Hair Eating in a Group of Captive Baboons (Papio hamadryas sp.).

Hair eating in nonhuman primates is thought to result from a frustrated appetitive drive produced by an inappropriate diet. To investigate whether hair eating could be reduced through changes in diet, a 2-part study was conducted with a group of baboons (Papio hamadryas sp.).

Stereotypic behavior in nonhuman primates as a model for the human condition.

Stereotypies that develop spontaneously in nonhuman primates can provide an effective model for repetitive stereotyped behavior in people with neurodevelopmental or obsessive-compulsive disorders. The behaviors are similar in form, are similarly affected by environmental conditions, and are improved with similar treatment methods such as enrichment, training, and drug therapy. However, because of a greater number of commonalities in these factors, nonhuman primates may serve as a better model for stereotyped behavior in individuals with autism or intellectual disability than for compulsions in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Hair loss and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Hair loss is a common problem in captive macaque colonies. A potential factor is the possible influence of stressful environments in the development of hair loss. We examined the relationship between hair loss and chronic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity by measuring cortisol in hair.

Abnormal behavior and associated risk factors in captive baboons (Papio hamadryas spp.).

Abnormal behavior, ranging from motor stereotypies to self-injurious behavior, has been documented in captive nonhuman primates, with risk factors including nursery rearing, single housing, and veterinary procedures. Much of this research has focused on macaque monkeys; less is known about the extent of and risk factors for abnormal behavior in baboons. Because abnormal behavior can be indicative of poor welfare, either past or present, the purpose of this study was to survey the presence of abnormal behavior in captive baboons and to identify potential risk factors for these behaviors with an aim of prevention.

IACUC review of nonhuman primate research.

This article will detail some of the issues that must be considered as institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) review the use of nonhuman primates (NHPs) in research. As large, intelligent, social, long-lived, and non-domesticated animals, monkeys are amongst the most challenging species used in biomedical research and the duties of the IACUC in relation to reviewing research use of these species can also be challenging. Issues of specific concern for review of NHP research protocols that are discussed in this article include scientific justification, reuse, social housing requirements, amelioration of distress, surgical procedures, and humane endpoints.

Hair loss and hair-pulling in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Alopecia is a common problem in rhesus macaque colonies. A possible cause of this condition is hair-pulling; however the true relationship between hair-pulling and alopecia is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between hair loss and hair-pulling in 1258 rhesus macaques housed in 4 primate colonies across the United States.

The Influence of Observer Presence on Baboon (Papio spp.) and Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) Behavior.

A common method for collecting behavioral data is through direct observations. However, there is very little information available on how a human observer affects the behavior of the animals being observed. This study assesses the effects of a human observer on the behavior of captive nonhuman primates.

A rhesus monkey model of self-injury: effects of relocation stress on behavior and neuroendocrine function.

Background: Self-injurious behavior (SIB), a disorder that afflicts many individuals within both clinical and nonclinical populations, has been linked to states of heightened stress and arousal. However, there are no published longitudinal data on the relationship between increases in stress and changes in the incidence of SIB. This study investigated the short- and long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine responses of SIB and control monkeys to the stress of relocation.

Early predictors of self-biting in socially-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

The development of self-biting behavior in captive monkeys is little understood and poses a serious risk to their well-being. Although early rearing conditions may influence the expression of this behavior, not all animals reared under similar conditions self-bite. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of three rearing conditions on biting behavior and to determine whether early infant behavior can predict later self-biting.

Analysis of endogenous cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques.

Short-term changes in activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system are routinely assessed by measuring glucocorticoid or metabolite concentrations in plasma, saliva, urine, or feces. However, there are no current methods for determining long-term (i.e.

Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: theory and application.

Investigators have an obligation to promote the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates used in research. Considerable emphasis has been placed on providing nonhuman primates with enriched environments as a means to achieve this objective. A framework is provided that consists of a set of hypotheses about well-being, and the extent to which exposure to various enrichment devices and procedures actually promotes well-being is evaluated.

The physiology and neurochemistry of self-injurious behavior: a nonhuman primate model.

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a serious behavioral condition that afflicts millions of individuals in the United States alone. The underlying factors contributing to the development of self-injury in people are poorly understood, and existing treatment strategies for this condition are limited. A low but persistent percentage of socially reared individually housed rhesus monkeys also spontaneously develop SIB.