Non-invasive brain stimulation and neuroenhancement.

Attempts to enhance human memory and learning ability have a long tradition in science. This topic has recently gained substantial attention because of the increasing percentage of older individuals worldwide and the predicted rise of age-associated cognitive decline in brain functions. Transcranial brain stimulation methods, such as transcranial magnetic (TMS) and transcranial electric (tES) stimulation, have been extensively used in an effort to improve cognitive functions in humans.

Ketamine and rapidly acting antidepressants: Breaking the speed of sound or light?

There is an urgent need for rapidly acting antidepressants. Current therapies share a delayed onset of action, contrasting with drugs of abuse that have rapid psychotropic effects but cause tolerance and dependence. A key uncertainty is whether there is a finite speed limit imposed by the critical role of homeostatic adaptive mechanisms that underpin the efficacy and onset of available psychotropic agents and whether this is mutable with emerging agents with potential rapid onset, in particular ketamine.