Phenylalanine ammonia-lyases and 4-coumaric acid coenzyme A ligases in Chara braunii, Marchantia polymorpha, and Physcomitrium patens as extant model organisms for plant terrestrialization.

The conquest of land posed severe problems to plants which they had to cope with by adapting biosynthetic capacities. Adaptations to respond to UV irradiation, water loss, pathogen and herbivore defense, and the earth's pull were essential. Chemical compounds alleviating these problems can be synthesized by the phenylpropanoid pathway, the core of which are three enzymes: phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase, and 4-coumaric acid coenzyme A-ligase (4CL).