Families of doctors at Academia Nacional de Medicina de México.

Introduction: The decision to get involved in the study and practice of medicine is not easy. Within the scientific environment, achieving both professional and personal success requires a strict discipline, where effort becomes an essential part of daily life; in addition, having family support becomes crucial in order for not to lose hope when confronting the different adversities that arise during medical training.

Objective: To identify families where at least two members belong to the Academia Nacional de Medicina de México (ANMM).

Belisario Domínguez: A life and death deserving of a medal.

Belisario Domínguez was a Mexican physician, ophthalmologist, and politician. He traveled abroad to France, where he studied High School, later he entered the School of Medicine at Sorbonne University in Paris. Back in Mexico, Domínguez installed his medical office in his house.

From ISET to InDRE. V. Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference. Global strategic position, 2012-2019.

This document describes the changes at the Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference (InDRE) from 2012 to 2019, the administrative and equipment modifications, the new headquarters and the National System of Epidemiological Surveillance legal modifications. The process of relocation is mentioned, especially the careful transfer of the biological material protected by the Institute, and the new way of studying epidemic outbreaks, endemic diseases and the negative network is analyzed. At the international level, the promotion of links with global networks of the Pan American Health Organization, the World Health Organization (WHO) and other international organizations is described.

From ISET to InDRE. IV. Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference: new orientation, 1990-2012.

From 1990 to 2012, the Sanitary and Tropical Diseases Institute experienced the most important changes. In 1989, its name and orientation were modified to become the National Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference. Shortly before, it had been formalized as the apex of the National Network of Public Health Laboratories and had incorporated laboratories for preventive programs such as exfoliative cytology and rabies, malaria and tuberculosis diagnosis; subsequently, it would incorporate other networks that emerged as part of the response to major epidemic outbreaks and to the new epidemiological outlook.

Desde el ISET al InDRE. III. Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales: crisis y renovación, 1965-1989.

This paper analyzes the situation and the changes made in the Institute of Sanitary and Tropical Diseases between 1965 and 1989 to become the National Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference. Three major stages are identified during this period: crisis, transition and renewal. The factors that led to the crisis, the decisions made to overcome it and to harmonize the work of laboratories with epidemiological and public health criteria are discussed.

Desde el ISET al InDRE. II. Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales: madurez y consolidación, 1940-1964.

The period that starts in 1940 is crucial for the creation of Mexico's modern health system. The Institute of Sanitary and Tropical Diseases is the pioneer institution in health research and on its first two decades it achieved maturity and consolidated lines of research expressed in almost 1700 publications. It also obtained notorious international visibility and was selected as a regional reference for epidemiological surveillance of influenza, streptococcus and salmonella.

[Chemistry and Pharmacy in the Journal of the Academy of Medical Medicine (1836-1843)].

This paper analyzes the articles published on chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the Periódico de la Academia de Medicina de Mégico. Through these publications it is possible to illustrate the transformation in the study of medical material of the era. At the same time, it shows discussions held by doctors and pharmacists about scientific news and analysis of local therapeutic resources.

[Epistemic injustice during the medical education process in the hospital context].

Background: The educational model adopted by the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) Faculty of Medicine is constructivist; it is a model based on competence development. It aims to provide learning environments that incorporate real activities (it helps the students to develop social negotiation skills, as part of their integral learning; it encourages them to take a critical and reflexive approach; and it is also a student-centered model). However, many challenges arise when this model is implemented in the context of hospital environments.

[Diseases of hunger: Mexico 1915].

1915 was a terrible year for Mexican people. After dictator Huerta’s fall, fratricide fighting involved diverse revolutionary groups. Mexico City was assaulted and occupied successively by different armies and, following the war came hunger and epidemics.

[Doctor Levi B. Salmans, founder of The Good Samaritan sanitarium in Guanajuato].

In this research we focus on the medical evangelist Levi B. Salmans, and The Good Samaritan sanitarium. Doctor Salmans lived in Mexico for about 50 years (1885-1935).

[Pharmacists in transition. Academy and Pharmacy in Mexico from 1833 to 1865].

From the second half of the 19th century, health disciplines went through an institutional and professional restructuring, which progressively altered the guild order that had characterized them to that point. In the case of Pharmacy, this process implied the generation of officially recognized spaces, as the chairs of Pharmacy and Medical Substance, founded during the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas (Establishment of Medical Sciences) (1833). In those spaces it was sought to institutionalize knowledge and modern practices related to Pharmacy.

New frontiers in the future of palliative care: real-world bioethical dilemmas and axiology of clinical practice.

Background: In our time there is growing interest in developing a systematic approach to oncologic patients and end-of-life care. An important goal within this domain is to identify the values and ethical norms that guide physicians' decisions and their recourse to technological aids to preserve life. Though crucial, this objective is not easy to achieve.

[Parental decisions that do not risk children's lives but place them at significant harm: foregoing vaccination].

The decisions of parents to forego vaccines "mandatory" for their children generate in physician and pediatricians some dilemmas and issues such as what to do when parents do not authorize administration of vaccines to their children? Do parents place their children at risk severe enough to notify governmental child protection services and treat this as parental negligence? What to do in the situation where the parental decision to forego immunization of their children affects others? The best interests of the child include ensuring the child's benefit over any other situation. Related to this, parents against vaccines have arguments to justify their position that physicians cannot force parents to immunize their children. By the same principle, physicians must ensure the welfare of children and remain alert, respecting that parental decisions do not exceed the threshold of "no harm to the child" and only if the parental decision in regard to foregoing vaccination places the child at risk of serious harm is government intervention justified.

[Informed consent and parental refusal to medical treatment in childhood. The threshold of medical and social tolerance. Part I].

Informed consent is a right of all individuals and no one can force anyone to receive treatment against their wishes. The right to accept or refuse treatment persists in individuals who are incompetent from a legal point of view; this is exercised on their behalf by a third party. Children are considered incompetent to make medical decisions about their own health and their parents or legal guardians are empowered to make those decisions.

[Informed consent and parental refusal for medical treatment in childhood. The threshold of medical and social tolerance. Part II].

Medical care in pediatric patients is conditional to parental consent. Parents decide the time and type of treatment they want their children to receive when they are ill. The physician should request parental consent before carrying out the most appropriate therapy.

[Doctor in medicine Juan de la Fuente and the first professor's chair at the Real y Pontificia Universidad de México].

In this paper, we analyze Juan de la Fuente's life and work. De la Fuente was a medical doctor with medical studies in Sigüenza and Sevilla, minor Spanish universities at that time. Born in Mallorca, he came to New Spain in 1563 and later, he was the first professor in the new Faculty of Medicine in the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico.

[Bioethics and intercultural health: notes to a necessary and possible connection].

One of the current challenges of bioethics is to look at diversity in health care, and especially avoid hegemonic criteria established as normative and do not include diversity. In some situations, such policies contributed to the exclusion of the difference in what is supposedly enshrined as "normal." This includes the difficulties that are generated against health issues when approached from a cultural perspective, because the diseases are not equal and do not manifest the same way in different cultures, i.

[Reflexions about the curricula at the faculty of medicine in the XXI century].

In this paper we review the main medical programs from the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM) faculty of medicine in the first seventy-five years of twentieth century. We have selected those instances that are representative of special moments in the development of Mexican medical knowledge, and also corresponding to the need to prepare medical students in view of social demands. The first programs are those of Ignacio Chavez in 1934, concerned mainly with the introduction into the curricula of medical specialties such as cardiology or neurology.

[Surgery from the end of the colonial regime to the conformation of independent Mexico].

Around the end of century XVIII the surgery of Nueva España was integrated to the renovation process that was given in Europe from principles of the illustrated century. As a result, the Royal College of Surgery was created; this institution was responsible for the education of surgeons of the kingdom, introducing and spreading the new and modern medical surgical theories. During the war of independence the College demonstrated its importance when they needed the graduates and students to serve the army.

[Hospitals in the New Spain during the Independence war].

In 1810 Mexico had more than a hundred hospitals scattered throughout its wide territory. Some buildings were big with the possibility to accept 600 patients or more, and some very small, as those seen in Arizpe, Sonora, or the small missions in Michoacan or la Sierra Gorda where only three or four patients could be placed. Their origins were diverse; some of them were founded by eminent or pious men like Cortés, Zumárraga, Pedro López, Núñez de Haro or Alcalde; others by religious orders and laboral guilds, some were only for the military.

[Epidemics and diseases during the Independence period in Mexico].

The epidemics and endemic diseases in Mexico were not a problem before the Independence period. Hunger was less than in the past. The 1806 Influenza epidemics had been forgotten.

[Tlaloc and ascites].

Ascites has been a common pathological sign among prehispanic Mexican people, as a result from hepatic and cardiac ailments. In this sense it represents a significant epidemiological problem. But it also is important because is related to Tlaloc and the rain gods and goddesses.