Pandemic origins and a One Health approach to preparedness and prevention: Solutions based on SARS-CoV-2 and other RNA viruses.

COVID-19 is the latest zoonotic RNA virus epidemic of concern. Learning how it began and spread will help to determine how to reduce the risk of future events. We review major RNA virus outbreaks since 1967 to identify common features and opportunities to prevent emergence, including ancestral viral origins in birds, bats, and other mammals; animal reservoirs and intermediate hosts; and pathways for zoonotic spillover and community spread, leading to local, regional, or international outbreaks.

Plasmid-associated antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in Escherichia coli in a high arctic reindeer subspecies.

Objectives: In extreme environments, such as the Arctic region, the anthropogenic influence is low and the presence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria is unexpected. In this study, we screened wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) from the Svalbard High Arctic Archipelago for antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli and performed in-depth strain characterisation.

Methods: Using selective culturing of faecal samples from 55 animals, resistant E.

First detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in Norway.

Background: Several outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) caused by influenza A virus of subtype H5N8 have been reported in wild birds and poultry in Europe during autumn 2020. Norway is one of the few countries in Europe that had not previously detected HPAI virus, despite widespread active monitoring of both domestic and wild birds since 2005.

Results: We report detection of HPAI virus subtype H5N8 in a wild pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus), and several other geese, ducks and a gull, from south-western Norway in November and December 2020.

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E Virus in Moose (), Reindeer (), Red Deer (), Roe Deer (), and Muskoxen () from Norway.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a major cause of viral hepatitis worldwide, is considered an emerging foodborne zoonosis in Europe. Pigs () and wild boars () are recognized as important HEV reservoirs. Additionally, HEV infection and exposure have been described in cervids.

Gammaherpesvirus in Cervid Species from Norway: Characterization of a New Virus in Wild and Semi-Domesticated Eurasian Tundra Reindeer ().

Gammaherpesvirus infections have been described in cervids worldwide, mainly the genera or . However, little is known about the gammaherpesviruses species infecting cervids in Norway and Fennoscandia. Blood samples from semi-domesticated ( = 39) and wild ( = 35) Eurasian tundra reindeer (), moose (, = 51), and red deer (, = 41) were tested using a panherpesvirus DNA polymerase (DPOL) PCR.

Bartonella spp. detection in ticks, Culicoides biting midges and wild cervids from Norway.

Bartonella spp. are fastidious, gram-negative, aerobic, facultative intracellular bacteria that infect humans, and domestic and wild animals. In Norway, Bartonella spp.

Neoplasms and novel gammaherpesviruses in critically endangered captive European minks (Mustela lutreola).

The European mink (Mustela lutreola) is a riparian mustelid, considered one of the most endangered carnivores in the world. Alpha, beta and gammaherpesviruses described in mustelids have been occasionally associated with different pathological processes. However, there is no information about the herpesviruses species infecting European minks.

Pestivirus Infections in Semi-Domesticated Eurasian Tundra Reindeer (): A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Serological Study in Finnmark County, Norway.

Members of the Pestivirus genus (family ) cause severe and economically important diseases in livestock. Serological studies have revealed the presence of pestiviruses in different cervid species, including wild and semi-domesticated Eurasian tundra reindeer. In this retrospective study, serum samples collected between 2006 and 2008 from 3339 semi-domesticated Eurasian reindeer from Finnmark County, Norway, were tested for anti-pestivirus antibodies using an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a subset of these by virus neutralization test (VNT).

Cervids as sentinel-species for tick-borne encephalitis virus in Norway - A serological study.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the causative agent of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). TBEV is one of the most important neurological pathogens transmitted by tick bites in Europe. The objectives of this study were to investigate the seroprevalence of TBE antibodies in cervids in Norway and the possible emergence of new foci, and furthermore to evaluate if cervids can function as sentinel animals for the distribution of TBEV in the country.

First Detection of Chronic Wasting Disease in a Wild Red Deer () in Europe.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal contagious prion disease naturally occurring in cervids in North America. In 2016, CWD was detected in wild reindeer () and moose () in Norway. Here, we report the first known naturally infected wild Norwegian red deer ().

Gammaherpesvirus (Type 1 Ruminant Rhadinovirus) in Muskox ( Ovibos moschatus) in Greenland.

The world's native distribution of muskox ( Ovibos moschatus) is restricted to Canada and Greenland, and a muskox-specific gammaherpesvirus has been described from Canadian populations. We analyzed spleen samples from the Kangerlussuaq muskox population in Greenland and identified muskox gammaherpes by PCR and sequencing.

Brucella pinnipedialis hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) strain in the mouse model with concurrent exposure to PCB 153.

Brucellosis, a worldwide zoonosis, is linked to reproductive problems in primary hosts. A high proportion of Brucella-positive hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) have been detected in the declined Northeast Atlantic stock. High concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have also been discovered in top predators in the Arctic, including the hooded seal, PCB 153 being most abundant.

Physiologic evaluation of medetomidine-ketamine anesthesia in free-ranging Svalbard (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and wild Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus).

Previously published studies indicated that combinations of medetomidine and ketamine were effective for both Svalbard (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and wild Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Both previous studies indicated that reindeer were hypoxemic on the basis of pulse oximetry. We conducted a physiologic evaluation of these two protocols using arterial blood gases.

Identification and characterization of two novel viruses in ocular infections in reindeer.

A thorough understanding of virus diversity in wildlife provides epidemiological baseline information about pathogens. In this study, eye swab samples were obtained from semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifertarandus tarandus) in Norway during an outbreak of infectious eye disease, possibly a very early stage of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC). Large scale molecular virus screening, based on host nucleic acid depletion, sequence-independent amplification and next-generation sequencing of partially purified viral nucleic acid, revealed the presence of a new papillomavirus in 2 out of 8 eye swab samples and a new betaherpesvirus in 3 out of 8 eye swab samples collected from animals with clinical signs and not in similar samples in 9 animals without clinical signs.

A protein A/G indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of anti-Brucella antibodies in Arctic wildlife.

A species-independent indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) based on chimeric protein A/G was established for the detection of anti-Brucella antibodies in Arctic wildlife species and compared to previously established brucellosis serological tests for hooded seals (Cystophora cristata), minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), and polar bears (Ursus maritimus), as well as bacteriology results for reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus sp.). The protein A/G iELISA results were consistent with the other serological tests with Cohen kappa values between 0.

Gammaherpesvirus infection in semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus): a cross-sectional, serologic study in northern Norway.

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) is caused by a group of gammaherpesviruses that primarily affect domestic and wild ruminants. Using competitive-inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we screened 3,339 apparently healthy, semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) from Finnmark County, Norway, sampled during slaughter. The overall antibody prevalence was 3.

Experimental parapoxvirus infection (contagious ecthyma) in semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus).

Contagious ecthyma (contagious pustular dermatitis, orf) occurs world-wide in sheep and goats and is caused by orf virus (genus Parapoxvirus, family Poxviridae). Contagious ecthyma outbreaks have been described in semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Sweden, Finland and Norway, occasionally with high mortality. Fourteen one-year-old reindeer were corralled in mid-April.

Evidence of alphaherpesvirus infections in Alaskan caribou and reindeer.

Background: The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) industry in Alaska began with animals imported from Siberia (Russia) in the 1890's. Cervid herpes virus 2 (CvHV2) is endemic in reindeer in Scandinavia. We sought to determine if the same virus, or similar herpesviruses, were circulating in Alaskan reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti).

Cervid herpesvirus 2 infection in reindeer: a review.

Herpesviruses of the genus Varicellovirus are known to infect and cause disease in a variety of ruminant species, but the impact of cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is mostly unknown. Reindeer is a circum-polar species with a total estimated number of more than 5 million animals. Mortality may reach high values, as in northern Norway, especially in calves (37%; 2005-2006), and disease can potentially account for some of this mortality.

Experimental infection of reindeer with cervid herpesvirus 2.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) has been isolated from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), and serological data indicate that in reindeer this virus is endemic in Fennoscandia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. CvHV2 has been described as a cause of subclinical genital infections in reindeer, but little information on primary infections exists. In this study, six seronegative and presumably pregnant reindeer were allocated to one of two groups.

Cervid herpesvirus 2, the primary agent in an outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in semidomesticated reindeer.

An outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) occurred in semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Troms County, Norway, in February 2009. Twenty-eight animals with clinical symptoms and 12 apparently healthy animals were investigated. They ranged in age from calves of the year to 4-year-old animals (mean, 1.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 experimentally reactivated in reindeer can produce generalized viremia and abortion.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) has never been isolated from reindeer in Norway, but serological data and investigations by PCR indicate that the virus is endemic in the country, with horizontal and vertical transmission, systemic spread, and latency in the trigeminal ganglion. In this study two seropositive reindeer, one of which was pregnant, were administered dexamethasone, to reactivate CvHV2 latent infection. One control animal received sterile water.

Alphaherpesvirus infections in semidomesticated reindeer: a cross-sectional serological study.

Alphaherpesviruses infect a wide range of animal species and cause diseases. Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV-2) was originally isolated from reindeer in Finland but the impact of CvHV-2 infections on reindeer remains unclear. CvHV-2 infection could be partly responsible for calf losses as there are indications that it is associated with abortions and neonatal diseases.