The Microbiome and the Gut-Liver-Brain Axis for Central Nervous System Clinical Pharmacology: Challenges in Specifying and Integrating In Vitro and In Silico Models.

The complexity of integrating microbiota into clinical pharmacology, environmental toxicology, and opioid studies arises from bidirectional and multiscale interactions between humans and their many microbiota, notably those of the gut. Hosts and each microbiota are governed by distinct central dogmas, with genetics influencing transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Each microbiota's metabolome differentially modulates its own and the host's multi-omics.