Running performance in Australopithecus afarensis.

The evolution of bipedal gait is a key adaptive feature in hominids, but the running abilities of early hominins have not been extensively studied. Here, we present physics simulations of Australopithecus afarensis that demonstrate this genus was mechanically capable of bipedal running but with absolute and relative (size-normalized) maximum speeds considerably inferior to modern humans. Simulations predicted running energetics for Australopithecus that are generally consistent with values for mammals and birds of similar body size, therefore suggesting relatively low cost of transport across a limited speed range.

Describing the musculature of mystacial pads in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) using diceCT.

Pinnipeds have long, sensitive, moveable mystacial vibrissae. In other mammals, intrinsic muscles contribute to protracting the vibrissae. However, the mystacial muscles of pinnipeds have not yet been systematically described.

Describing whisker morphology of the Carnivora.

One of the largest ecological transitions in carnivoran evolution was the shift from terrestrial to aquatic lifestyles, which has driven morphological diversity in skulls and other skeletal structures. In this paper, we investigate the association between those lifestyles and whisker morphology. However, comparing whisker morphology over a range of species is challenging since the number of whiskers and their positions on the mystacial pads vary between species.

Investigating the quadrupedal abilities of Scutellosaurus lawleri and its implications for locomotor behavior evolution among dinosaurs.

A reversion to secondary quadrupedality is exceptionally rare in nature, yet the convergent re-evolution of this locomotor style occurred at least four separate times within Dinosauria. Facultative quadrupedality, an intermediate state between obligate bipedality and obligate quadrupedality, may have been an important transitional step in this locomotor shift, and is proposed for a range of basal ornithischians and sauropodomorphs. Advances in virtual biomechanical modeling and simulation have allowed for the investigation of limb anatomy and function in a range of extinct dinosaurian species, yet this technique has not been widely applied to explore facultatively quadrupedal gait generation.

Baculum shape complexity correlates to metrics of post-copulatory sexual selection in Musteloidea.

The penis bone, or baculum, is present in many orders of mammals, although its function is still relatively unknown, mainly due to the challenges with studying the baculum in vivo. Suggested functions include increasing vaginal friction, prolonging intromission and inducing ovulation. Since it is difficult to study baculum function directly, functional morphology can give important insights.

The evolutionary origin of avian facial bristles and the likely role of rictal bristles in feeding ecology.

Facial bristles are one of the least described feather types and have not yet been systematically studied across phylogenetically diverse avian species. Consequently, little is known about their form, function and evolutionary history. Here we address this knowledge gap by characterising the evolution of facial bristles for the first time.

: Software for high throughput segmentation and meshing of microCT data in microtiter plate arrays.

Lab-based microCT is a powerful means of visualising the internal structure of physical specimens deployed across the physical sciences, engineering and the arts. As its popularity has grown, demand for bulk digitisation of multiple samples within a single scan has increased. High throughput workflows can increase sample sizes and reduce scan time, yet downstream segmentation and meshing remain a bottleneck.

A Review and Case Study of 3D Imaging Modalities for Female Amniote Reproductive Anatomy.

Recent advances in non-invasive imaging methods have revitalised the field of comparative anatomy, and reproductive anatomy has been no exception. The reproductive systems of female amniotes present specific challenges, namely their often internal "hidden" anatomy. Quantifying female reproductive systems is crucial to recognising reproductive pathologies, monitoring menstrual cycles, and understanding copulatory mechanics.

Assessing the patterns and drivers of shape complexity in the amblypygid pedipalp.

Amblypygi is an arachnid order possessing a unique pair of spined pedipalps: appendages that perform in prey capture, courtship, and contest. Pedipalp length, hypothesized to be under sexual selection, varies markedly across amblypygid species, and pedipalp spination, thought to reflect selection for function in prey capture, also differs interspecifically. Differences in pedipalp shape between species may indicate that the relative strength of selection for prey capture and sexual selection vary across the group.

3D genital shape complexity in female marine mammals.

Comparisons of 3D shapes have recently been applied to diverse anatomical structures using landmarking techniques. However, discerning evolutionary patterns can be challenging for structures lacking homologous landmarks. We used alpha shape analyses to quantify vaginal shape complexity in 40 marine mammal specimens including cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians.

Postcopulatory sexual selection and the evolution of shape complexity in the carnivoran baculum.

The baculum is an enigmatic bone within the mammalian glans penis, and the driving forces behind its often bizarre shape have captivated evolutionary biologists for over a century. Hypotheses for the function of the baculum include aiding in intromission, stimulating females and assisting with prolonged mating. Previous attempts to test these hypotheses have focused on the gross size of the baculum and have failed to reach a consensus.

Alpha shapes: determining 3D shape complexity across morphologically diverse structures.

Background: Following recent advances in bioimaging, high-resolution 3D models of biological structures are now generated rapidly and at low-cost. To use this data to address evolutionary and ecological questions, an array of tools has been developed to conduct shape analysis and quantify topographic complexity. Here we focus particularly on shape techniques applied to irregular-shaped objects lacking clear homologous landmarks, and propose a new 'alpha-shapes' method for quantifying 3D shape complexity.

Sexual dimorphism in the Arachnid orders.

Sexual differences in size and shape are common across the animal kingdom. The study of sexual dimorphism (SD) can provide insight into the sexual- and natural-selection pressures experienced by males and females in different species. Arachnids are diverse, comprising over 100,000 species, and exhibit some of the more extreme forms of SD in the animal kingdom, with the males and females of some species differing dramatically in body shape and/or size.

Testing hypotheses for the function of the carnivoran baculum using finite-element analysis.

The baculum (os penis) is a mineralized bone within the glans of the mammalian penis and is one of the most morphologically diverse structures in the mammal skeleton. Recent experimental work provides compelling evidence for sexual selection shaping the baculum, yet the functional mechanism by which this occurs remains unknown. Previous studies have tested biomechanical hypotheses for the role of the baculum based on simple metrics such as length and diameter, ignoring the wealth of additional shape complexity present.

A volumetric technique for fossil body mass estimation applied to Australopithecus afarensis.

Fossil body mass estimation is a well established practice within the field of physical anthropology. Previous studies have relied upon traditional allometric approaches, in which the relationship between one/several skeletal dimensions and body mass in a range of modern taxa is used in a predictive capacity. The lack of relatively complete skeletons has thus far limited the potential application of alternative mass estimation techniques, such as volumetric reconstruction, to fossil hominins.

Investigating the running abilities of using stress-constrained multibody dynamic analysis.

The running ability of has been intensively studied due to its relevance to interpretations of feeding behaviour and the biomechanics of scaling in giant predatory dinosaurs. Different studies using differing methodologies have produced a very wide range of top speed estimates and there is therefore a need to develop techniques that can improve these predictions. Here we present a new approach that combines two separate biomechanical techniques (multibody dynamic analysis and skeletal stress analysis) to demonstrate that true running gaits would probably lead to unacceptably high skeletal loads in .

Locomotion pattern and foot pressure adjustments during gentle turns in healthy subjects.

People suffering from locomotor impairment find turning manoeuvres more challenging than straight-ahead walking. Turning manoeuvres are estimated to comprise a substantial proportion of steps taken daily, yet research has predominantly focused on straight-line walking, meaning that the basic kinetic, kinematic and foot pressure adaptations required for turning are not as well understood. We investigated how healthy subjects adapt their locomotion patterns to accommodate walking along a gently curved trajectory (radius 2.

The benefit of a tough skin: bullet holes, weathering and the preservation of heritage.

Projectile damage to building stone is a widespread phenomenon. Sites damaged 100 years ago during the First World War still see daily use, while in a more contemporary setting numerous reports show the damage to buildings in Babylon, Mosul and Palmyra. While research has been carried out on the long-term effects of conflict such as fire damage, little is known about the protracted damage sustained through the impact of bullets, shrapnel and other metal projectiles outside of the field of engineering focused on ceramics and metals.

Decoupled form and function in disparate herbivorous dinosaur clades.

Convergent evolution, the acquisition of morphologically similar traits in unrelated taxa due to similar functional demands or environmental factors, is a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom. Consequently, the occurrence of similar form is used routinely to address fundamental questions in morphofunctional research and to infer function in fossils. However, such qualitative assessments can be misleading and it is essential to test form/function relationships quantitatively.

Convex-hull mass estimates of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus): application of a CT-based mass estimation technique.

The external appearance of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus, Linnaeus, 1758) has been a source of considerable intrigue, as contemporaneous accounts or depictions are rare. The body mass of the dodo has been particularly contentious, with the flightless pigeon alternatively reconstructed as slim or fat depending upon the skeletal metric used as the basis for mass prediction. Resolving this dichotomy and obtaining a reliable estimate for mass is essential before future analyses regarding dodo life history, physiology or biomechanics can be conducted.

The Postcranial Skeleton of an Exceptionally Complete Individual of the Plated Dinosaur Stegosaurus stenops (Dinosauria: Thyreophora) from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of Wyoming, U.S.A.

Although Stegosaurus is one of the most iconic dinosaurs, well-preserved fossils are rare and as a consequence there is still much that remains unknown about the taxon. A new, exceptionally complete individual affords the opportunity to describe the anatomy of Stegosaurus in detail for the first time in over a century, and enables additional comparisons with other stegosaurian dinosaurs. The new specimen is from the Red Canyon Ranch Quarry, near Shell Wyoming, and appears to have been so well preserved because it was buried rapidly in a pond or body of standing water immediately after death.

An advanced shape-fitting algorithm applied to quadrupedal mammals: improving volumetric mass estimates.

Body mass is a fundamental physical property of an individual and has enormous bearing upon ecology and physiology. Generating reliable estimates for body mass is therefore a necessary step in many palaeontological studies. Whilst early reconstructions of mass in extinct species relied upon isolated skeletal elements, volumetric techniques are increasingly applied to fossils when skeletal completeness allows.

Downsizing a giant: re-evaluating Dreadnoughtus body mass.

Estimates of body mass often represent the founding assumption on which biomechanical and macroevolutionary hypotheses are based. Recently, a scaling equation was applied to a newly discovered titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur (Dreadnoughtus), yielding a 59 300 kg body mass estimate for this animal. Herein, we use a modelling approach to examine the plausibility of this mass estimate for Dreadnoughtus.

Body mass estimates of an exceptionally complete Stegosaurus (Ornithischia: Thyreophora): comparing volumetric and linear bivariate mass estimation methods.

Body mass is a key biological variable, but difficult to assess from fossils. Various techniques exist for estimating body mass from skeletal parameters, but few studies have compared outputs from different methods. Here, we apply several mass estimation methods to an exceptionally complete skeleton of the dinosaur Stegosaurus.