Three-dimensional echo-guided beating heart surgery without cardiopulmonary bypass: atrial septal defect closure in a swine model.

Objective: In this study, we tested 3 techniques of atrial septal defect closure under real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography guidance in a swine model.

Methods: The operations were conducted under the sole guidance of a modified real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography guidance system with a x4 matrix transducer (Sonos 7500, Philips Medical Systems, Andover, Mass). Eighteen swine were anesthetized, and after median sternotomy, the echo probe was applied directly to the surface of the right atrium.