Is (R)-ketamine a potential therapeutic agent for treatment-resistant depression with less detrimental side effects? A review of molecular mechanisms underlying ketamine and its enantiomers.

Approximately one-third of individuals with major depressive disorder are resistant to conventional antidepressants (i.e., monoamine-based therapies), and, even among respondents, a proper therapeutic effect may require weeks of treatment.

Anhedonic-like behavior correlates with IFNγ serum levels in a two-hit model of depression.

Stress is implicated in the etiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) and leads to the activation of proinflammatory pathways, which are recognized to induce depressive symptoms. For instance, depression is commonly observed in patients with hepatitis C and cancer under IFN therapy, and high levels of inflammatory cytokines are described in the serum of individuals with MDD - which indicate a multi-system aspect of psychiatric disorders. Thus, we evaluated the effects of a two-hit model of depression on peripheral and CNS inflammatory, neurotrophic, and oxidative stress parameters and behavior.

Attenuated inflammatory response of monocyte-derived macrophage from patients with BD: a preliminary report.

Background: Innate immune system dysfunction has been recognized as an important element in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD). We aimed to investigate whether there are differences in the response of macrophages derived from patients in the early stages and late stages of BD and healthy subjects.

Methods: Human monocytes purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of patients with BD type I (n = 18)-further classified into early- and late stage BD patients according to their functioning- and from healthy individuals (n = 10) were differentiated into macrophages in vitro.