Susceptibility of Mammals to Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: A Qualitative Risk Assessment From the Belgian Perspective.

Aims: The world experienced a huge number of outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in birds, which could represent one of the largest registered epidemics of infectious disease in food-producing animals. Therefore, mammals, including humans, are continuously exposed to HPAI viruses leading to sporadic and sometimes unusual mammal infections. The aim of this paper is to assess the risk of crossing the avian/mammalian species barrier by the currently circulating HPAI viruses, focusing on the epidemiological situation of Belgium, a representative country for Western Europe.

Noroviruses-The State of the Art, Nearly Fifty Years after Their Initial Discovery.

Human noroviruses are recognised as the major global cause of viral gastroenteritis. Here, we provide an overview of notable advances in norovirus research and provide a short recap of the novel model systems to which much of the recent progress is owed. Significant advances include an updated classification system, the description of alternative virus-like protein morphologies and capsid dynamics, and the further elucidation of the functions and roles of various viral proteins.

Development of a Specific Anti-capsid Antibody- and Magnetic Bead-Based Immunoassay to Detect Human Norovirus Particles in Stool Samples and Spiked Mussels via Flow Cytometry.

Human noroviruses impose a considerable health burden globally. Here, a flow cytometry approach designed for their detection in biological waste and food samples was developed using antibody-coated magnetic beads. Antipeptide antibodies against murine norovirus and various human norovirus genotypes were generated for capture and coated onto magnetic beads.

Analysis of Synchronous and Asynchronous In Vitro Infections with Homologous Murine Norovirus Strains Reveals Time-Dependent Viral Interference Effects.

Viral recombination is a key mechanism in the evolution and diversity of noroviruses. In vivo, synchronous single-cell coinfection by multiple viruses, the ultimate prerequisite to viral recombination, is likely to be a rare event and delayed secondary infections are a more probable occurrence. Here, we determine the effect of a temporal separation of in vitro infections with the two homologous murine norovirus strains MNV-1 WU20 and CW1 on the composition of nascent viral populations.

Risk assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in free-ranging wild animals in Belgium.

The aim of this review paper is to evaluate the putative susceptibilities of different free-ranging wild animal species in Belgium to SARS-CoV-2 and provide a risk assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in those animals. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, natural SARS-CoV-2 infections have mainly been confirmed in domestic and production animals, and in wild animals kept in captivity, although the numbers remain limited when compared to human cases. Recently, the first SARS-CoV-2 infections in presumably escaped minks found in the wild have been detected, further addressing the much-feared scenario of transmission of the virus to animals living in the wild and its consequences.

Semi-quantitative risk assessment by expert elicitation of potential introduction routes of African swine fever from wild reservoir to domestic pig industry and subsequent spread during the Belgian outbreak (2018-2019).

Since the introduction in Georgia in 2007 of an African swine fever (ASF) genotype 2 virus strain, the virus has rapidly spread to both Western European and Asian countries. It now constitutes a major threat for the global swine industry. The ongoing European transmission cycle has been related to the 'wild boar habitat' with closed transmission events between wild boar populations and incidental spillovers to commercial and non-commercial (backyard) pig holdings.

Optimisation of a PMAxx™-RT-qPCR Assay and the Preceding Extraction Method to Selectively Detect Infectious Murine Norovirus Particles in Mussels.

Human noroviruses are a major cause for gastroenteritis outbreaks. Filter-feeding bivalve molluscs, which accumulate noroviruses in their digestive tissues, are a typical vector for human infection. RT-qPCR, the established method for human norovirus detection in food, does not allow discrimination between infectious and non-infectious viruses and can overestimate potentially infectious viral loads.

Replicative fitness recuperation of a recombinant murine norovirus - reciprocity of genetic shift and drift.

Noroviruses are recognized as the major cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans. Molecular mechanisms driving norovirus evolution are the accumulation of point mutations and recombination. Recombination can create considerable changes in a viral genome, potentially eliciting a fitness cost, which must be compensated via the adaptive capacity of a recombinant virus.

Norovirus recombinants: recurrent in the field, recalcitrant in the lab - a scoping review of recombination and recombinant types of noroviruses.

Noroviruses are recognized as the major global cause of sporadic and epidemic non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans. Molecular mechanisms driving norovirus evolution are the accumulation of point mutations and recombination. Intragenotypic recombination has long been postulated to be a driving force of GII.

Evidence of natural interspecific recombinant viruses between bovine alphaherpesviruses 1 and 5.

Closely related bovine alphaherpesviruses 1 (BoHV-1) and 5 (BoHV-5) co-circulate in certain countries, rendering cattle co-infection possible. This is a prerequisite for BoHV recombination. Here, we report the first identification of homologous recombination between field isolates of BoHV-1 and BoHV-5, two alphaherpesviruses belonging to two distinct species with an average genomic similarity of 82.

High-throughput sequencing analysis reveals the genetic diversity of different regions of the murine norovirus genome during in vitro replication.

In this study, we report the genetic diversity and nucleotide mutation rates of five representative regions of the murine norovirus genome during in vitro passages. The mutation rates were similar in genomic regions encompassing partial coding sequences for non-structural (NS) 1-2, NS5, NS6, NS7 proteins within open reading frame (ORF) 1. In a region encoding a portion of the major capsid protein (VP1) within ORF2 (also including the ORF4 region) and a portion of the minor structural protein (VP2), the mutation rates were estimated to be at least one order of magnitude higher.

Virucidal Efficacy of a Hydrogen Peroxide Nebulization Against Murine Norovirus and Feline Calicivirus, Two Surrogates of Human Norovirus.

Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are amongst the leading causes of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans and can be transmitted via person-to-person contact, via contact with contaminated surfaces or by consumption of contaminated food. Contaminated surfaces in healthcare settings contribute to the transmission of viruses. No-touch automated room disinfection systems might prevent such a spread of contamination and thus their virucidal effect needs to be evaluated.

Infectivity of a recombinant murine norovirus (RecMNV) in Balb/cByJ mice.

The infectivity of a recombinant murine norovirus (RecMNV) strain, previously isolated following in vitro coinfections, was evaluated in vivo in comparison with its parental strains (MNV-1-CW1 and WU20) in Balb/cByJ mice via measurement of weight loss and estimation of viral loads in faeces, tissues and organs 48 and 72h post-infection. The presence of infectious virus in all analysed tissues and organs suggests that, similarly to its parental viruses, RecMNV can disseminate beyond organs associated with the digestive tract. Our results also suggest that recombination occurring in vitro between two homologous murine norovirus strains can give rise to a chimeric strain which, despite slight differences, shows similar biological properties to its parental strains.

Human norovirus infection in Latin America.

Noroviruses are important enteric pathogens involved in non-bacterial gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. Noroviruses mainly occur from person to person via the fecal-oral route but also through contaminated food or water; indirect contamination is also possible due to the resistance of the virus in the environment. Latin American countries as a whole cover a vast North-to-South range, which is highly heterogeneous in terms of climate, ecosystem, human population distribution (urban areas with high human densities versus closed communities), economic development and genetic backgrounds resulting from each particular historical context.

Molecular detection of bovine Noroviruses in Argentinean dairy calves: Circulation of a tentative new genotype.

Bovine noroviruses are enteric pathogens detected in fecal samples of both diarrheic and non-diarrheic calves from several countries worldwide. However, epidemiological information regarding bovine noroviruses is still lacking for many important cattle producing countries from South America. In this study, three bovine norovirus genogroup III sequences were determined by conventional RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing in feces from diarrheic dairy calves from Argentina (B4836, B4848, and B4881, all collected in 2012).

Feline panleukopenia virus in cerebral neurons of young and adult cats.

Background: Perinatal infections with feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) have long been known to be associated with cerebellar hypoplasia in kittens due to productive infection of dividing neuroblasts. FPV, like other parvoviruses, requires dividing cells to replicate which explains the usual tropism of the virus for the digestive tract, lymphoid tissues and bone marrow in older animals.

Results: In this study, the necropsy and histopathological analyses of a series of 28 cats which died from parvovirus infection in 2013 were performed.

Bovine noroviruses: A missing component of calf diarrhoea diagnosis.

Noroviruses are RNA viruses that belong to the Genus Norovirus, Family Caliciviridae, and infect human beings and several animal species, including cattle. Bovine norovirus infections have been detected in cattle of a range of different ages throughout the world. Currently there is no suitable cell culture system for these viruses and information on their pathogenesis is limited.

Comparative Virucidal Efficacy of Seven Disinfectants Against Murine Norovirus and Feline Calicivirus, Surrogates of Human Norovirus.

Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are the leading cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans and can be transmitted either by person-to-person contact or by consumption of contaminated food. A knowledge of an efficient disinfection for both hands and food-contact surfaces is helpful for the food sector and provides precious information for public health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of seven disinfectants belonging to different groups of biocides (alcohol, halogen, oxidizing agents, quaternary ammonium compounds, aldehyde and biguanide) on infectious viral titre and on genomic copy number.

Study of the virulence of serotypes 4 and 9 of African horse sickness virus in IFNAR(-/-), Balb/C and 129 Sv/Ev mice.

African horse sickness virus (AHSV) is a double-stranded RNA virus which belongs to the family Reoviridae, genus Orbivirus. Recent studies have focused on the interferon-α/β receptor knock-out mice (IFNAR(-/-)) as a small animal laboratory for the development of AHSV vaccines. The aim of this work was to study in vivo the virulence of two strains of AHSV and to compare the outcome of the infection of three mouse strains.

Estimation of hepatitis E virus (HEV) pig seroprevalence using ELISA and Western blot and comparison between human and pig HEV sequences in Belgium.

Zoonotic transmission of hepatitis E virus (HEV) is of special concern, particularly in high income countries were waterborne infections are less frequent than in developing countries. High HEV seroprevalences can be found in European pig populations. The aims of this study were to obtain prevalence data on HEV infection in swine in Belgium and to phylogenetically compare Belgian human HEV sequences with those obtained from swine.

First report of isolation and molecular characterization of bubaline herpesvirus 1 (BuHV1) from Argentinean water buffaloes.

Herpesviruses have mainly co-evolved with their hosts for millions of years. However, bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV1) and related ruminant alphaherpesviruses have been reported to cross the species barrier. Bubaline herpesvirus 1 (BuHV1) is an alphaherpesvirus closely related to BoHV1 and BoHV5.

Genetic heterogeneity of bovine noroviruses in Italy.

By screening 104 faecal samples from asymptomatic calves in Italy, bovine norovirus RNA was detected with a prevalence rate of 10.5 % (11/104). A continuous sequence spanning the RdRp region and the 5' end of the capsid gene was generated for 7 of the 11 strains.

Molecular epidemiology of norovirus infections in symptomatic and asymptomatic children from Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.

Background: Noroviruses (NoV) are a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Few epidemiological data regarding the NoV strains circulating in African countries are available.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of NoV in Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) in both symptomatic and asymptomatic gastroenteritis patients.

New norovirus classified as a recombinant GII.g/GII.1 causes an extended foodborne outbreak at a university hospital in Munich.

Background: Noroviruses are among the most prevalent causative agents for gastroenteritis worldwide. The low infectious dose, its stability in the environment, and its genetic variability enable the virus to cause outbreaks, especially in health care facilities and other similar settings. Genotype II.

Multiplex PCR followed by restriction length polymorphism analysis for the subtyping of bovine herpesvirus 5 isolates.

Background: Several types and subtypes of bovine herpesviruses 1 and 5 (BoHV-1 and BoHV-5) have been associated to different clinical conditions of cattle, making type/subtype differentiation essential to understand the pathogenesis and epidemiology of BoHV infections. BoHV-5 subtyping is currently carried out by BstEII restriction enzyme analysis (REA) of the complete virus genome. This method allowed the description of three subtypes, one of which is the most widespread while the remaining two have so far only been found in South America.