Estradiol and raloxifene protect cultured SN4741 neurons against oxidative stress.

A large body of research has documented neuroprotective effects of estrogen against oxidative stress. Some neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease, in which oxidative stress has been implicated as a contributing factor, affect more males than females, suggesting a possible protective effect of estrogen. We used the clonal substantia nigra cell line SN4741 to compare the neuroprotective properties of estrogen and raloxifene against oxidative stress, and to determine whether raloxifene acted as an estrogen agonist or antagonist in this system.

beta-estradiol influences differentiation of hippocampal neurons in vitro through an estrogen receptor-mediated process.

We utilized morphometric analysis of 3 day cultures of hippocampal neurons to determine the effects of both estradiol and the synthetic estrogen receptor modulator raloxifene on several parameters of neuronal growth and differentiation. These measurements included survival, neurite production, dendrite number, and axon and dendrite length and branching. 17 beta-Estradiol (10 nM) selectively stimulated dendrite branching; this effect was neither mimicked by alpha-estradiol, nor blocked by the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182780.

Enhancement of dendritic branching in cultured hippocampal neurons by 17beta-estradiol is mediated by nitric oxide.

Both 17beta-estradiol (E2) and nitric oxide (NO) are important in neuronal development, learning and memory, and age-related memory changes. There is growing evidence that a number of estrogen receptor-mediated effects of estradiol utilize nitric oxide as an intermediary. The role of estradiol in hippocampal neuronal differentiation and function has particular implications for learning and memory.

Culturing rat hippocampal neurons.

Cultured neurons are widely used to investigate the mechanisms of neurotoxicity. Embryonic rat hippocampal neurons may be grown as described under a wide variety of conditions to suit differing experimental procedures, including electrophysiology, morphological analysis of neurite development, and various biochemical and molecular analyses.

Nanomolar concentrations of nicotine and cotinine alter the development of cultured hippocampal neurons via non-acetylcholine receptor-mediated mechanisms.

We investigated the effects of nicotine and its metabolic byproduct cotinine on survival, differentiation and intracellular Ca2+ levels of cultured E18 rat hippocampal neurons. We used a range of concentrations from 1 nM to 10 microM, most of which are within the likely range of human fetal exposure from maternal smoking. Nicotine did not influence neuron survival or neurite production.

Low levels of inorganic lead noncompetitively inhibit mu-calpain.

Calpain is a ubiquitous calcium-dependent cysteine protease, whose cytoskeletal protein substrates suggest that it may be important in neuronal differentiation. Lead (Pb2+) is known to substitute for Ca2+ in a variety of intracellular processes, and interferes with the development of hippocampal neurons in vitro. We found that free Pb2+ at 1 nM does not activate calpain in the absence of Ca2+.

The effects of triethyl lead on the development of hippocampal neurons in culture.

Triethyl lead is the major metabolite of tetraethyl lead, which is used in industrial processes and as an antiknock additive to gasoline. We tested the hypothesis that low levels of triethyl lead (0.1 nmol/L to 5 mumol/L) interfere with the normal development of cultured E18 rat hippocampal neurons, possibly through increases in intracellular free calcium ion concentration, [Ca2+]in.

Effects of inorganic lead on the differentiation and growth of cortical neurons in culture.

Lead exposure has devastating effects on the developing nervous system, producing morphological, cognitive, and behavioral deficits. To elucidate some of the mechanisms of lead neurotoxicity, we have examined its effects on the differentiation of several types of cultured neurons. Previously, we reported the effects of inorganic lead on several parameters of growth and differentiation of E18 rat hippocampal neurons and two types of neuroblastoma cells cultured in medium with 2% fetal calf serum (FCS) (Audesirk et al.

The effects of inorganic lead on voltage-sensitive calcium channels differ among cell types and among channel subtypes.

The whole-cell version of patch clamping was used to compare the effects of acute in vitro exposure to inorganic lead (Pb2+) on voltage-sensitive calcium channels in cultured N1E-115 mouse neuroblastoma cells and E18 rat hippocampal neurons. Free Pb2+ concentrations in salines with a high lead-buffering capacity were measured with a calibrated Pb(2+)-selective electrode. Previously, we found that N1E-115 neurons contain low voltage activated, rapidly inactivating (T) channels and high voltage activated, slowly inactivating (L) channels.

Effects of inorganic lead on the differentiation and growth of cultured hippocampal and neuroblastoma cells.

Lead exposure has devastating effects on the developing nervous system, and has been implicated in variety of behavioral and cognitive deficits as well as neural morphological abnormalities. Since lead impacts many calcium-dependent processes, one likely mechanism of lead toxicity is its disruption of calcium dependent processes, among which is neuronal differentiation. We investigated the effects of inorganic lead on survival and several parameters of differentiation of cultured neurons.

Effects of inorganic lead on voltage-sensitive calcium channels in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells.

N1E-115 mouse neuroblastoma cells have been reported to possess two types of voltage-sensitive calcium channels: Low voltage activated, rapidly inactivating T-type (type I) and high voltage activated, slowly inactivating L-type (type II). We studied the effects of acute in vitro exposure to inorganic lead on these calcium channels, using the whole-cell variant of patch clamping. Using salines with a high lead-buffering capacity, we found that both T-type and L-type channels are reversibly inhibited in a dose-dependent manner at free Pb2+ concentrations ranging from 20 nM to 14 microM.

L-type calcium channels may regulate neurite initiation in cultured chick embryo brain neurons and N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells.

The intracellular free Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]i, plays an important role in regulating neurite growth in cultured neurons. Insofar as [Ca2+]i is partly a function of Ca2+ influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCC), Ca2+ entry through VSCC should influence neurite growth. Vertebrate neurons may possess several types of VSCC.

Characterization of pre- and postsynaptic dopamine receptors in Lymnaea.

1. The effects of dopamine and several synthetic agonists and antagonists were studied using two identified neurons of the snail Lymnaea stagnalis. 2.

Effects of in vitro lead exposure on voltage-sensitive calcium channels differ among cell types in central neurons of Lymnaea stagnalis.

The effects of acute in vitro lead exposure on slowly inactivating voltage-sensitive calcium channels in central neurons of the freshwater pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis were studied under voltage clamp. Three physiologically distinct cell types were used: two subsets of the B cell cluster (Bpos and Bneg) and the pedal giant neuron (RPeD1). In Bpos neurons, 5 nM free Pb2+ irreversibly inhibited current flow through calcium channels by 38 +/- 10%.

Double-staining techniques allows electrophysiological identification of monoamine-containing neurons.

Electrophysiological recording provides important evidence for positive identification of many neurons in gastropods. We describe a technique which combines intracellular recording and injection of a persistent, non-fluorescent dye (Fast Green) with subsequent histofluorescence treatment using a modification of the wholemount glyoxylic acid procedure developed by Barber (1983) to establish the presence or absence of monoamine transmitters in positively identified single gastropod neurons.

Evidence for genetic influences on neurotransmitter content of identified neurones of Lymnaea stagnalis.

Neurotransmitter content was measured in two identified giant neurones in isogenic and wild-type populations of the freshwater pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. The paired serotonergic cerebral giant neurones (LC1 and RC1) have higher transmitter levels and less variability in inbred animals than in wild-type animals. The transmitter content of the unpaired dopaminergic right pedal giant neurone (RPeD1) does not differ between inbred and wild-type animals in either level or variability.

One-trial reward learning in the snail Lymnea stagnalis.

We present evidence that the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis is capable of aquisition and extensive retention of an appetitively reinforced feeding response after only a single training trial. Food-deprived snails presented with a single pairing of a phagostimulant (a mixture of sucrose and casein digest) and a novel, non-food chemostimulus (amyl acetate) subsequently made feeding responses to the amyl acetate and retained the association for at least 19 days. This demonstration of one-trial, non-aversive classical conditioning enhances the utility of Lymnaea stagnalis as a model system for the detailed analysis of neural mechanisms underlying plasticity.

Chronic lead exposure reduces junctional resistance at an electrical synapse.

Both acute and chronic lead exposure have been found to inhibit transmission at chemical synapses, possibly by interfering with inward calcium current. We have found that chronic lead exposure slightly reduces input resistance and greatly reduces the junctional resistance between two strongly electrically coupled neurons in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. The net effect is to increase the strength of electrical coupling.

Effects of chronic low level lead exposure on the physiology of individually identifiable neurons.

Although chronic exposure to lead has been correlated with a variety of behavioral and neurochemical deficits in humans and other mammals, little is known of the mechanisms of action of chronic lead at the level of the individual nerve cell. We have used the individually identifiable neurons of the freshwater pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis as a model system to investigate the effects of chronic low level (5 microM) lead exposure on neuronal physiology. Thirteen neuronal parameters were measured with intracellular microelectrode recording in each of six different identifiable neurons or homogeneous neuron clusters.

Variability and frequent failure of lucifer yellow to pass between two electrically coupled neurons in Lymnaea stagnalis.

The electrically coupled giant neurosecretory neurons VD1 and RPD2 of Lymnaea stagnalis were found to have coupling coefficients ranging from ca. 0.1-0.

A FIELD STUDY OF GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN APLYSIA CALIFORNICA.

1. Observations of field growth rates, reproductive activities, and abundance of Aplysia calfiornica were made over a three-year period on Santa Catalina Island off southern California. 2.