The effects of GIP, GLP-1 and GLP-2 on markers of bone turnover: a review of the gut-bone axis.

Bone is a dynamic tissue continuously undergoing remodelling processes of resorption and formation to maintain bone mass and health. Food intake and the release of the gut-derived incretin hormones including glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) as well as its 'sister hormone' glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2), appear to regulate bone turnover processes in the postprandial state as part of the so-called gut-bone axis. The effects of these gut hormones on bone metabolism depend on their circulating concentrations.

Regulation of LEAP2 by insulin and glucagon in mice and humans.

Liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP2) is an endogenous antagonist and inverse agonist of the ghrelin receptor, countering ghrelin's effects on cell signaling and feeding. However, despite an emerging interest in LEAP2's physiology and pharmacology, its endocrine regulation remains unclear. Here, we report that plasma LEAP2 levels decrease significantly upon glucagon infusions during somatostatin clamps in humans.