SPATEs promote the survival of to the plasma complement system upon local hemorrhage and bacteremia.

spp. are the causative agents of shigellosis, which remains a leading cause of death in children under the age of 5. Symptoms of shigellosis include bloody diarrhea, associated to colon hemorrhage; in more severe cases bacteremia is induced.

Ascorbate deficiency increases progression of shigellosis in guinea pigs and mice infection models.

spp. are the causative agents of bacterial dysentery and shigellosis, mainly in children living in developing countries. The study of entire life cycle and the evaluation of vaccine candidates' protective efficacy have been hampered by the lack of a suitable animal model of infection.

The battle for oxygen during bacterial and fungal infections.

Bacterial and fungal pathogens face various microenvironmental conditions during infection. In addition to acidosis, nutrient consumption, and hypercapnia, pathogen infections are associated with hypoxia, which is induced by bacterial and fungal respiration during the formation of foci of infection or biofilms. Consequently, the in vivo interaction between host immune cells and pathogens is anticipated to occur mainly under low-oxygen conditions.

The selective advantage of facultative anaerobes relies on their unique ability to cope with changing oxygen levels during infection.

Bacteria, including those that are pathogenic, have been generally classified according to their ability to survive and grow in the presence or absence of oxygen: aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, respectively. Strict aerobes require oxygen to grow (e.g.

Shigella-mediated oxygen depletion is essential for intestinal mucosa colonization.

Pathogenic enterobacteria face various oxygen (O) levels during intestinal colonization from the O-deprived lumen to oxygenated tissues. Using Shigella flexneri as a model, we have previously demonstrated that epithelium invasion is promoted by O in a type III secretion system-dependent manner. However, subsequent pathogen adaptation to tissue oxygenation modulation remained unknown.

The MUB40 Peptide for Use in Detecting Neutrophil-Mediated Inflammation Events.

Here, we provide a protocol involving the use of MUB40, a synthesized peptide with the ability to bind glycosylated lactoferrin stored at high concentrations in specific and tertiary granules of neutrophils. This protocol details how MUB40 conjugated directly to a fluorophore can be used to stain neutrophils in fixed/permeabilized tissues as well as how this can be used in live-cell imaging to assay for neutrophil activation and de-granulation. Neutrophil detection methods are limited to species-specific monoclonal antibodies, which are not always suitable for certain applications.