Breast cancer stem cells, pathways and therapeutic perspectives 2011.

The evidence for the existence of a heterogeneous population of cancer stem cells (CSCs) responsible for the initiation and maintenance of cancer has been characterized for several tumors recently. Purification and molecular characterization of normal human mammary stem cells from cultured mammospheres has been achieved, providing evidence supporting a model in which breast tumor heterogeneity is a reflection of a number of CSC-like cells in the tumor. A number of experimental methodologies have been developed to characterize epithelial stem cells, including the expression of cell surface or intracellular markers, mammosphere formation, exclusion of fluorescent dye by a side population, retention of the radionucleotide label, etc.

Senescence (ageing) @ 2011.

Ageing, also called as senescence, is one of the most complex, intrinsic, biological processes of growing older and resulting into reduced functional ability of the organism. Telomerase, environment, low calorie diets, free radicals, etc., are all believed to affect this ageing process.

Botulinum toxin.

Botulinum toxin, one of the most poisonous biological substances known, is a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. C. botulinum elaborates eight antigenically distinguishable exotoxins (A, B, C(1), C(2), D, E, F and G).