Postbiotics engage IRF4 in adipocytes to promote sex-dependent changes in blood glucose during obesity.

Postbiotics are microbial-derived components or metabolites that can influence host immunity and metabolism. Some postbiotics can improve blood glucose control and lower inflammation during bacterial or nutritional stress. Bacterial cell wall-derived muramyl dipeptide (MDP) is a potent insulin-sensitizing postbiotic that engages NOD2, RIPK2, and requires interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) to lower inflammation and improve blood glucose.

Micronutrients impact the gut microbiota and blood glucose.

Micronutrients influence hormone action and host metabolism. Dietary minerals, trace elements, and vitamins can alter blood glucose and cellular glucose metabolism, and several micronutrients are associated with the risk and progression of type 2 diabetes. Dietary components, microbes, and host immune, endocrine, and metabolic responses all interact in the intestine.