Enhanced osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs and M2-phenotype polarization of macrophages on a titanium surface modified with graphene oxide for potential implant applications.

Osseointegration at the bone-implant interface is a complex biological process that is triggered by the immune-inflammatory response and mediated by various cell types such as, bone-forming cells and immune cells, especially macrophages. The polarization of macrophages to inflammatory/regenerative (M1/M2) phenotypes, as well as the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) at the bone-implant interface, significantly affects implant osseointegration and even causes implant failure. Graphene oxide (GO) is a promising candidate for performing implant surface functionalization to modulate the interactions between implants and cells.