Total chemical synthesis of sumoylated histone H4 reveals negative biochemical crosstalk with histone ubiquitylation.

An efficient total chemical synthesis of site-specifically sumoylated histone H4 was undertaken to generate homogenously modified mononucleosomes. These were tested as substrates in biochemical assays with the histone H2B-specific ubiquitin ligases Rad6 and Bre1, which revealed the strong inhibition of H2B ubiquitylation by SUMO. This novel negative biochemical crosstalk between SUMO and ubiquitin was also confirmed to exist in human cells.

Determinants of adenine-mutagenesis in diversity-generating retroelements.

Diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) vary protein sequences to the greatest extent known in the natural world. These elements are encoded by constituents of the human microbiome and the microbial 'dark matter'. Variation occurs through adenine-mutagenesis, in which genetic information in RNA is reverse transcribed faithfully to cDNA for all template bases but adenine.