Non-communicable disease training for public health workers in low- and middle-income countries: lessons learned from a pilot training in Tanzania.

Background: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are increasing worldwide. A lack of training and experience in NCDs among public health workers is evident in low- and middle- income countries.

Methods: We describe the design and outcomes of applied training in NCD epidemiology and control piloted in Tanzania that included a 2-week interactive course and a 6-month NCD field project.

Connectivity from OR37 expressing olfactory sensory neurons to distinct cell types in the hypothalamus.

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) which express a member from the OR37 subfamily of odorant receptor (OR) genes are wired to the main olfactory bulb (MOB) in a unique monoglomerular fashion; from these glomeruli an untypical connectivity into higher brain centers exists. In the present study we have investigated by DiI and transsynaptic tracing approaches how the connection pattern from these glomeruli into distinct hypothalamic nuclei is organized. The application of DiI onto the ventral domain of the bulb which harbors the OR37 glomeruli resulted in the labeling of fibers within the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SO) of the hypothalamus; some of these fibers were covered with varicose-like structures.

Untypical connectivity from olfactory sensory neurons expressing OR37 into higher brain centers visualized by genetic tracing.

The OR37 subfamily of odorant receptors(ORs) exists exclusively in mammals. In contrast to ORs in general, they are highly conserved within and across species.These unique features raise the question, whether olfactory information gathered by the OR37 sensory cells is processed in specially designated brain areas.

Gene switching and odor induced activity shape expression of the OR37 family of olfactory receptor genes.

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) which express distinct odorant receptor (OR) genes are spatially arranged within the mouse olfactory epithelium. Towards an understanding of the mechanisms which determine these patterns, representative OR genes which are typically expressed in the unique central patch of the epithelium were investigated. Inside the patch, numerous OSNs which initially selected a representative gene from this OR group finally expressed another gene from the group, indicating that OSNs inside the patch 'switch' between these genes.

The patch-like pattern of OR37 receptors is formed by turning off gene expression in non-appropriate areas.

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) expressing the same odorant receptor (OR) gene are generally widely dispersed throughout the olfactory epithelium (OE). In contrast, OSNs expressing any member from the special OR37 subfamily are concentrated in a small patch in the centre of the OE. To evaluate whether transcription of OR37 genes is only possible in the patch region, or if they can generally be chosen also in non-appropriate areas, a transgenic approach was employed that permanently labelled all cells which ever transcribed a representative OR37 gene.