A review of particulate matter (PM) in Indonesia: trends, health impact, challenges, and options.

This study reviews particulate matter (PM) research in Indonesia, focusing on current trends, health impacts, challenges, and future research directions. As the largest archipelago country, Indonesia faces severe pollution annually due to rapid urbanization, industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and forest fires. PM levels often exceed WHO and NAAQS standards, especially in urban areas and during forest fire seasons, posing significant health risks to vulnerable populations.