Graduated driver licensing (GDL) in the United States in 2016: A literature review and commentary.

This is the sixth in a series of reviews of research on graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the Journal of Safety Research, the present review covering the period mid-2012 through 2016. In the two decades since GDL programs began to be introduced on a widespread basis in the United States, a vast amount of research has been published. The current review discusses recent research and the present state of knowledge on the following topics: characteristics of the novice driver population; effects of GDL on crashes for ages 16-19; the learner and intermediate periods; night and passenger restrictions; cellphone laws; GDL for older novices; enforcement of GDL rules; and programs attempting to influence GDL compliance and safe driving practices in general.

Trends in teen driver licensure, driving patterns and crash involvement in the United States, 2006-2015.

Introduction: The Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey provides nationally-representative annual estimates of licensure and driving patterns among U.S. teens.

Comparison of older and younger novice driver crash rates: Informing the need for extended Graduated Driver Licensing restrictions.

Background: Few previous studies have directly compared crash rates of older and younger novice drivers. To inform discussion about whether Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) policies that are applied in the US for younger novice drivers should be applied to older novice drivers, we conducted a longitudinal study to examine overall, nighttime, and multiple passenger crash rates over the initial four years of licensure differ for novice drivers licensed at different ages.

Methods: Using data from the New Jersey Traffic Safety Outcomes (NJ-TSO) data warehouse, we selected all NJ drivers who obtained their initial intermediate driver's license from 2006 through 2014 and had at least one month of follow-up from the date of licensure to study end or death (n=1,034,835).

Graduated Driver Licensing Night Driving Restrictions and Drivers Aged 16 or 17 Years Involved in Fatal Night Crashes - United States, 2009-2014.

Fatal crash risk is higher at night for all drivers, but especially for young, inexperienced drivers (1). To help address the increased crash risk for beginner teen drivers, 49 states and the District of Columbia include a night driving restriction (NDR) in their Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system. NDRs have been shown to reduce crashes among newly licensed teens, with higher reductions associated with NDRs starting at 10:00 p.

History and current status of state graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws in the United States.

Introduction: The objective of this study is to describe changes in teenage driver licensing policies in the United States during the past two decades with the introduction of graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs, assess GDL laws currently in place, and discuss the possibilities and likely consequences of further changes.

Methods: The history of laws introducing and amending GDL programs was tracked, based on records maintained by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). Counts of states included the District of Columbia.

A Review of Hazard Anticipation Training Programs for Young Drivers.

Purpose: Poor hazard anticipation skills are a risk factor associated with high motor vehicle crash rates of young drivers. A number of programs have been developed to improve these skills. The purpose of this review was to assess the empirical literature on hazard anticipation training for young drivers.

Driving among high school students - United States, 2013.

During 2004-2013, the number of passenger vehicle drivers aged 16-19 years involved in fatal crashes in the United States declined by 55% from 5,724 to 2,568.* In addition to graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs and safer vehicles,† other possible contributors to the decline include adolescents waiting longer to get their driver licenses and driving less. The crash risk for drivers of any age is highest during the first months of independent driving, and this risk is highest for the youngest teenage drivers.

Driver licensing and reasons for delaying licensure among young adults ages 18-20, United States, 2012.

Background: Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for teens and young adults in the United States. Graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems were designed to protect young novice drivers by limiting their exposure to specific risks while they gain experience driving. In the United States, most states' GDL systems only apply to new drivers younger than 18.

On-road all-terrain vehicle (ATV) fatalities in the United States.

Background: The study was designed to describe the characteristics of all-terrain vehicle (ATV) rider fatalities and fatal crashes involving ATVs that occur on public roads.

Methods: Information on fatal crashes occurring on public roads during the years 2007-2011 was obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS).

Results: There were 1,701 ATV rider deaths during the 5-year study period, including 1,482 drivers, 210 passengers, and 9 with unknown rider status.

Characteristics of teens-with-teens fatal crashes in the United States, 2005-2010.

Background: More than 40% of fatal crashes of 16- and 17-year-old drivers occur when transporting teenagers. Characteristics of this predominant crash type and prevention possibilities are described, based on data from fatal crashes in the United States during 2005-2010.

Results: Fifty-seven percent of 16- and 17-year old drivers in fatal crashes had at least one passenger.

Views of New Jersey teenagers about their state's policies for beginning drivers.

Background: Three New Jersey licensing policies are unique in the United States: (a) minimum licensing age of 17; (b) applying full graduated driver licensing (GDL) rules to beginners younger than 21; and (c) requiring license status decals on vehicle plates of drivers in GDL.

Methods: New Jersey 17-19 year-olds were surveyed by telephone and online.

Results: Eighty-four percent approved licensing at 17; 77% approved applying GDL to older novices; 23% approved the decal policy.

Commentary: teenage driver fatal crash rate trends: what do they reveal?

Objective: To determine long-term fatal crash rate trends of teenage drivers in the United States, before and after the introduction of graduated driver licensing programs.

Methods: Teenage driver fatal crash involvement rates were calculated for 1990-2011 and referenced to rates for 25- to 59-year-olds.

Results: The results indicated reductions in teen crash rates coincident with the economic downturn in 2008-2009 and reductions at ages 16 and 17 reflecting the introduction graduated driver licensing (GDL) but no effects positive or negative at ages 18 and 19.

Trends in driver licensing status and driving among high school seniors in the United States, 1996-2010.

Introduction: Understanding the reasons for fluctuations in teenage driver crashes over time in the United States is clouded by the lack of information on licensure rates and driving exposure.

Methods: We examined results from the Monitoring the Future survey to estimate the proportion of high school seniors who possessed a driver's license and the proportion of seniors who did not drive "during an average week" during the 15-year period of 1996-2010.

Results: During 1996-2010, the proportion of high school seniors in United States who reported having a driver's license declined by 12 percentage points (14%) from 85% to 73%.

Teen driver risk in relation to age and number of passengers, United States, 2007-2010.

Objective: To provide updated estimates of the relationship between the number and ages of passengers present in a vehicle and the crash risk per mile driven of 16- and 17-year-old drivers.

Methods: Data on crashes that occurred in years 2007-2010 and data on the number of miles driven in years 2008-2009 were examined. Rates of crash involvement and driver death per mile driven were estimated for 16- and 17-year-old drivers with no passengers; with 1, 2, and 3 or more passengers younger than age 21 (and no older passengers); and with at least 1 passenger aged 35 or older.

New Jersey's license plate decal requirement for graduated driver licenses: attitudes of parents and teenagers, observed decal use, and citations for teenage driving violations.

Objectives: On May 1, 2010, New Jersey implemented a law requiring teenagers with learner's permits or probationary licenses to display reflective decals on the front and rear license plates when they drive. The current study examined attitudes of parents and teenagers toward this requirement, use of decals, and reported violations and police enforcement of the graduated driver license law.

Method: Statewide telephone surveys of representative samples of parents and teenagers were conducted in February to April 2010 and March to June 2011.

Licensing age issues: deliberations from a workshop devoted to this topic.

Objective: To highlight the issues and discuss the research evidence regarding safety, mobility, and other consequences of different licensing ages.

Methods: Information included is based on presentations and discussions at a 1-day workshop on licensing age issues and a review and synthesis of the international literature.

Results: The literature indicates that higher licensing ages are associated with safety benefits.

Graduated driver licensing research, 2010-present.

This is the latest in a series of reviews of research on graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the Journal of Safety Research, covering the period January 1, 2010-June 1, 2012 and works in progress. The intent is to keep researchers and policy makers current regarding the existing state of knowledge about GDL, and to identify information gaps and areas where clarification of research findings are needed. The recent research indicates that we continue to learn about ways to extend GDL benefits, but there remain important questions in need of further inquiry.

Motor vehicle fatal crash profiles of 13-15-year-olds.

Objective: The goal was to provide a description of fatal crashes involving 13-15-year-old drivers and passengers.

Methods: Information was obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System for 2005-2009.

Results: The 1,994 passenger deaths during the 2005-2009 period far exceeded the number of driver deaths (299) or the number of drivers in fatal crashes (744).

Fatal crashes of 16- to 17-year-old drivers involving alcohol, nighttime driving, and passengers.

Objective: The objective of this study was to provide a contemporary analysis of the alcohol-impaired driving problem among 16- to 17-year-olds and to consider the potential role of night and passenger restrictions in dealing with the alcohol problem by determining how many of the alcohol-related crashes take place at night or with passengers.

Methods: The data were derived from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System for 16- to 17-year-old passenger vehicle drivers in fatal crashes during 2005-2009.

Results: During the 5-year period, 15 percent of the 8664 16- to 17-year-old drivers in fatal crashes had positive blood alcohol concentrations, most of which were 0.

Changes in self-regulatory driving among older drivers over time.

Objectives: The primary goal of the study was to identify to what extent older people modify their driving, what influences them to do so, and how self-regulatory behavior changes over time in relation to changes in perceived impairments and lifestyle characteristics.

Methods: Participants 65 and older (n = 2650) were recruited while renewing their driver's licenses in Connecticut, Kentucky, and Rhode Island and were interviewed by telephone about current driving patterns, recent changes in driving, functional abilities related to driving (i.e.

Teenagers' licensing decisions and their views of licensing policies: a national survey.

Objective: One objective was to determine teenage licensing rates on a national basis, interest in early licensure, and reasons for delay. A second objective was to learn teenagers' opinions about licensing policies, important in states considering ways to upgrade their current licensing systems.

Methods: One thousand three hundred eighty-three 15- to 18-year-olds completed an online survey in November 2010.

Commentary: graduated licensing--moving forward or standing still?

The widespread application of graduated driver licensing (GDL), starting in the mid-1990s, has greatly reduced young driver crashes. Substantial further reductions are possible by raising the licensing age to 17. This can be done indirectly, through extension of GDL policies (minimum learner age of 16, one-year holding period), or by legislation directly establishing 17 as the licensing age.

Views of parents of teenagers about licensing policies: a national survey.

Objective: During the past two decades, many changes in licensing policies have been made in U.S. states, and more are being discussed.