The External Carotid Artery and the Styloid Process.

Background: The external carotid artery (ECA) is typically regarded as coursing between the styloid muscles to continue into the parotid space. The anatomical possibility of an ECA with an ascending parapharyngeal trajectory continuing posteriorly to an elongated styloid process (ESP), thus retrostyloid, to the parotid space is overlooked. It was, therefore, aimed to document the prevalence of this retrostyloid variant of the ECA's course.

The posterior-inferior recess of the sinus tympani, an anatomical novelty.

Background: The anatomy of the retrotympanum is highly variable, and surgical access is challenging. In the medial retrotympanum, a descending series of recesses are found: the posterior tympanic sinus, the sinus tympani (ST), and the subtympanic sinus (STS). Most of the previous anatomical studies of the ST evaluated it as a single depression of variable width and depth, without recesses, just on axial sections.

The Ethmomaxillary Sinus-A False Duplicate Maxillary Sinus.

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery consistently benefits from good anatomical knowledge and modern imaging techniques. Ethmoid air cells migrate in specific topographical sites near the ethmoid. Posterior ethmoid air cells that descend into the maxillary sinus (MS) are ethmomaxillary sinuses (EMSs) that into the superior nasal meatus.

The posterior or tubal sphenoidal plate extending into the tympanosquamous fissure - A novel finding.

Objective: The tympanic plate typically joins the articular tubercle in the medial glenoid wall. It is aimed to report a peculiar anatomic variant of the latter.

Methods: The computed tomography scans of two adult male cases were documented for the anatomical details of the temporomandibular joint.

Multiple Rare Anatomic Variations in Anterior and Posterior Cerebral Circulation: A Case Report.

Anatomic variations of intracranial arteries are of paramount importance in neurosurgery and interventional radiology. Three extremely rare arterial variants were found by observing the intracranial vascular anatomy on the magnetic resonance angiography files of a 56-year-old female patient. Firstly, on the left side of the vertebrobasilar axis, a persistent primitive lateral basilovertebral anastomosis was found uniting the left anterior inferior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries; further, the left anterior inferior cerebellar artery looped above the nerves of the internal auditory canal.

Middle meatal nasal recesses of the maxillary sinuses and dangerously modified nasal anatomy.

Pneumatisation of the maxillary sinus (MS) is variable. The archived cone-beam computed tomography file of a 54-year-old female was retrospectively evaluated anatomically. Nasal or retrobullar recesses of the MSs (NRMS) were found.

Superior laryngeal artery originating from the lingual artery.

In most cases, the superior laryngeal artery (SLA) branches from the superior thyroid artery, which, in turn, leaves the external carotid artery. Few dissection studies found previously that the SLA could originate from the lingual artery. We report here probably the first evidence of such a rare anatomical variation found unilaterally in a retrospectively evaluated by computed tomography angiography adult male case.

The Diversity of the Linguofacial Trunk.

: Typically, the external carotid artery (ECA) sends off separate anterior branches: the superior thyroid, lingual, and facial arteries. These could, however, form common trunks: thyrolinguofacial, linguofacial (LFT), or thyrolingual. Although known, the LFT variant was poorly detailed previously, and most authors just counted the variant.

The Basal or Sphenopetrosal Superficial Middle Cerebral Vein Type.

: The adult superficial middle cerebral vein (SMCV) commonly drains into the middle cranial fossa. However, different embryonic types persist, in which the SMCV drains into the lateral sinus. The basal type of SMCV coursing on the middle fossa floor is a scarce variant.

Maxillary Artery Traversing Through the Temporal Muscle.

Few previous dissection reports demonstrated the possible course of the maxillary artery (MA) through the temporalis muscle (TM). A dissection study performed a long time ago established a 2% prevalence of this variant. As the variant was not studied on angiograms, we decided to do so.

The retromandibular loop of the external carotid artery.

Background: The external carotid artery (ECA) is a major artery of the head and neck. Although numerous studies describe the variability of ECA branches, the course variation of the ECA was seemingly overlooked. It was aimed to study the morphological possibilities of the retromandibular segment of the ECA.

Lowered hyoid bone overlapping the thyroid cartilage in CT angiograms.

Background: The ventral enclosure of the thyroid cartilage by a collapsed hyoid bone (CHB) is poorly encountered in previous research. It was aimed to observe whether or not these malformations could be found and detailed anatomically in a consistent lot of computed tomography (CT) files.

Methods: Two hundred archived CT angiograms were explicitly observed for the CHB anatomical variant.

The Maxillary Artery Loops Dangerously Approaching the Mandible's Lingula and Inferior Orbital Fissure.

The maxillary artery (MA) leaves from the external carotid artery and further courses through the infratemporal fossa to reach the pterygopalatine fossa. It typically has an ascending course either on the lateral or on the medial side of the inferior bundle of the lateral pterygoid muscle. While studying retrospectively, the computed tomography angiogram of an adult male case with peculiar tortuosities of the MA was documented.

Persisting carotid duct and proximal external carotid artery agenesis in an adult.

The carotid duct (CD) is a transient embryological structure connecting the 3rd and 4th aortic arches. We found a persisting CD in an adult female case, by studying the computed tomography angiogram. On the left side, the proximal external carotid artery (ECA) agenesis was noted.

Astrocytes - friends or foes in neurodegenerative disorders.

Astrocytes (AS) are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). They have various morphologies and numerous (50-60) branching prolongations, with roles in the maintenance of the CNS function and homeostasis. AS in the optic nerve head (ONH) have specific distribution and function and are involved in the pathogenesis of glaucoma and other neural diseases, modify their morphologies, location, immune phenotype, and ultrastructure, thus being the key players in the active remodeling processes of the ONH.

The Axial Spin of the Carotid Bifurcation.

(1) Background: Twisted carotid bifurcations (CBs) lead to lateralized external carotid arteries (ECAs). Such variants are usually reported on a case-by-case basis. We aimed to study the anatomical possibilities of the axial spin of CB.

Ring-shaped Dandy's superior petrosal vein.

Background: Dandy's superior petrosal vein (SPV) anatomy is highly relevant for neurosurgeons. The SPV drains into the superior petrosal sinus (SPS), closely related to the trigeminal and internal auditory pores.

Method: The archived enhanced MRI files of a male patient were studied.

The Carotid-Hyoid Topography Is Variable.

: The carotid bifurcation (CB) is presented in most anatomy textbooks as having a unique location at the upper margin of the thyroid cartilage. Although a number of case reports have provided evidence of the possibility of carotid artery location either lateral or medial to the greater hyoid horn, these reports have not established specific anatomic possibilities and prevalences. : We retrospectively analysed a batch of 147 CT angiograms for 12 types of carotid-hyoid relationships and classified the bilateral combination possibilities of these types.

Bihemispheric Right Anterior Cerebral Artery, Fenestrated Origin of the Left Pericallosal Artery, Fenestrated Basilar Artery, Double Right Posterior Cerebral Artery.

Anatomical variations of the cerebral vasculature are frequently encountered. The archived magnetic resonance angiogram of a 62-year-old male patient was studied anatomically on planar slices and 3-dimensional volume renderings. Numerous anatomical variants were found in that single case.

A rare variant of accessory posterior cerebral artery.

Background: The posterior cerebral artery (PCA) leaves from the distal end of the basilar artery (BA) and is joined to the internal carotid artery (ICA) by the posterior communicating artery (PComA).

Method: The archived computed tomography angiogram of a 67 y.o.

Anatomical Variations of the External Jugular Vein: A Pictorial and Critical Review.

(1) : The external jugular vein (EJV) descends on the sternocleidomastoid muscle to drain deep into the subclavian vein. Anatomical variations of the EJV are relevant for identification of the greater auricular nerve, flap design and preparation, or EJV cannulation. (2) : Different publications were comprehensively reviewed.

Fenestrated Maxillary Artery.

The external carotid artery divides terminally into the superficial temporal and maxillary arteries (MA), deep to the base of the neck of the mandible. Arterial fenestrations are commonly found in the vertebrobasilar and internal carotid systems but are rarely encountered, or reported, in the external carotid artery system. The archived computed tomography angiograms of a 70-year-old male patient were observed anatomically.