Calcium-Based Binders in Concrete or Soil Stabilization: Challenges, Problems, and Calcined Clay as Partial Replacement to Produce Low-Carbon Cement.

Calcium-based binders, such as ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and lime (CaO), are the most common artificial cementitious materials used worldwide for concrete and soil improvement. However, using cement and lime has become one of the main concerns for engineers because they negatively affect the environment and economy, prompting research into alternative materials. The energy consumption involved in producing cementitious materials is high, and the subsequent CO emissions account for 8% of the total CO emissions.