[European Code against Cancer: 12 ways to reduce your cancer risk].

Recently, the Word Health Organization/International Agency for Research on Cancer published the 4th edition of European Code against Cancer with 12 personal advices on how to diminish the risk of development of cancer. A proportion of advices refers to risk factors which are connected to our everyday lifestyle; another admonishes to comply with the services offered by the health care system. In Hungary, the European Code has not received adequate publicity so far.

[Implementation status of cervical screening in Europe].

Following the recommendation of the Council of the European Union, almost all governments made a policy statement on the introduction of cytology-based cervical screening for the health care system. However, the status of implementation is uneven. In the majority of the developed countries an organised model of screening recommended by the relevant international professional organisations are in use, while occasional screening is applied in some other countries.

[Factors influencing the participation in colorectal screening].

Participation of the target population in coloretal screening is generally low. In addition to demographic and socio-economic factors, the health care system and- in particular - family doctors play an important role. Further, the rate of participation is influenced by psychological, cognitive and behavioural factors, too.

[Gynecological screening or cervical screening? Conflicts between clinical and public health viewpoints].

The "gynecological screening" that is composed of complex gynecological examination including colposcopy and cytological examinations has traditionally been incorporated into the gynecological protocol and practice. Over the past few decades, unfortunately, this screening practice has entrenched in the mind both of the gynecological community and the general public. As a result, the government-supported, organized cervical screening program of the population has come to a standstill.

[Controversial issues in colorectal screening in Hungary: conflict of clinical and public health viewpoints].

In Hungary, mortality rates from colorectal cancer are dramatically high, therefore the reduction by population screening as a public health measure is considered as one of the priorities of National Public Health Program. In the beginning, a human-specific immunological test was applied in the "model programs", as a screening tool, to detect the occult blood in the stool; compliance was 32% in average. However, the objectives of the model programs have not been achieved, because, among other reasons, a debate on the method of choice and the strategy to follow have divided the professional public opinion.

[The state of the colorectal screening in Hungary: lessons of the pilot programs].

In Hungary, colorectal cancer is the second most common malignant disease. Due to its natural history, colorectal cancer is particularly suitable for screening. At present, epidemiological evidences of the effectiveness of detection of the symptomless colorectal cancer and its precursors are only available for the demonstration of fecal occult blood, endoscopic methods are also in use.

[The undesirable, psychologically adverse effects of screening].

The psychological adverse effects might play an important role in the non-compliance with the offered screening examination. The possible sources of them are three-fold: 1. The general human attitude, such as the rejection of health interventions, particularly those aiming at the prevention of eventual future health problems instead of handling existing complaints and symptoms at present; the screening can be seen as a "future-oriented" intervention.

[Screening for early detection of lung cancer: conflict between clinical and public health viewpoints].

In Hungary, lung cancer, gradually increasing among women, is the leading cause of cancer mortality. The screening, using chest x-ray and sputum cytology as screening tool, does not reduce the mortality from lung cancer, therefore, screening for lung cancer is not recommended. The low-dose spiral CT is a sensitive and promising method, however, its specificity is far from being ideal.

[Oral cancer screening: how to develop a country-wide opportunistic system in Hungary].

In Hungary, oral cancer represents a very heavy public health problem. Even epidemiological evidence in support of the effectiveness of organized screening for early detection does not exist, the efforts to detect the precancerous lesions and early cancers of oral cavity must be continued. The mass screening component of the National Public Health program provides a good opportunity for that.

[Is the mass screening for prostate cancer justifiable?].

In Hungary, prostate cancer is a major public health problem, therefore screening should be considered to reduce the number of deaths. Screening tests are available, i.e.

[The state of the organised mammography screening in Hungary in 2006].

Breast cancer represents a serious public health concern in Hungary. The most promising way of mortality reduction is organised screening which applies personal invitation, recall and follow-up. Screening women between 50-65 years of age by mammography combined with clinical breast examination is a method of proved effectiveness.

[The state of organized cervical screening program in Hungary in 2006].

Theoretically, there is a real prospect for full eradication of cervical cancer by cytology screening. In several countries the burden of cervical cancer significantly decreased due to regular screening of the population. In Hungary, the complex "gynecological screening", including colposcopic examination, has a long tradition, however, the efforts of several decades are not reflected in the mortality: about 500 women are killed by cervical cancer each year.

[The state of the organized screening in Hungary in 2006].

Hungary carries a heavy burden of cancer. At present, the organized screening of symptomless people seems to be the most promising strategy. According to the state-of-the art, those are the mammography-based breast screening, the cytology screening of cervix uteri, and the colorectal screening using immunochemical detection of the fecal occult blood satisfy the criteria of organized screening.