Spectroscopic confirmation of a mature galaxy cluster at a redshift of 2.

Galaxy clusters are the most massive virialized structures in the Universe and are formed through the gravitational accretion of matter over cosmic time. The discovery of an evolved galaxy cluster at redshift z = 2, corresponding to a look-back time of 10.4 billion years, provides an opportunity to study its properties.

Free Polyethylenimine Enhances Substrate-Mediated Gene Delivery on Titanium Substrates Modified With RGD-Functionalized Poly(acrylic acid) Brushes.

Substrate mediated gene delivery (SMD) is a method of immobilizing DNA complexes to a substrate via covalent attachment or nonspecific adsorption, which allows for increased transgene expression with less DNA compared to traditional bolus delivery. It may also increase cells receptivity to transfection via cell-material interactions. Substrate modifications with poly(acrylic) acid (PAA) brushes may improve SMD by enhancing substrate interactions with DNA complexes via tailored surface chemistry and increasing cellular adhesion via moieties covalently bound to the brushes.

Biomaterial substrate modifications that influence cell-material interactions to prime cellular responses to nonviral gene delivery.

This review summarizes how biomaterial substrate modifications (e.g. chemical modifications like natural coatings, ligands, or functional side groups, and/or physical modifications such as topography or stiffness) can prime the cellular response to nonviral gene delivery (e.

Biofunctionalization of Titanium Substrates Using Nanoscale Polymer Brushes with Cell Adhesion Peptides.

The grafting of polymer brushes to substrates is a promising method to modify surface properties such as wettability and the affinity toward proteins and cells for applications in microelectronics, biomedical devices, and sensors. Poly(acrylic) acid (PAA) brushes are of high interest because of their stimuli-responsive behavior and the presence of carboxy (COOH) groups, which allow for immobilization of bioactive molecules. The "grafting-to" approach results in homogeneous and well-defined polymer brushes, but, although grafting-to has been demonstrated with PAA brushes on silicon (Si) substrates, it has not been performed on biocompatible materials such as titanium (Ti).