Head to head: the case for fighting behaviour in using finite-element analysis.

The largest antlers of any known deer species belonged to the extinct giant deer . It has been argued that their antlers were too large for use in fighting, instead being used only in ritualized displays to attract mates. Here, we used finite-element analysis to test whether the antlers of could have withstood forces generated during fighting.

Comparative Three-Dimensional Moment Arm Analysis of the Sauropod Forelimb: Implications for the Transition to a Wide-Gauge Stance in Titanosaurs.

The evolution of extraordinarily large size among Sauropoda was associated with a number of biomechanical adaptations. Changes in muscle moment arms undoubtedly accompanied these adaptations, but since muscles rarely fossilize, our ability to understand them has been restricted. Here, we use three-dimensional (3D) musculoskeletal modeling to reconstruct and quantitatively assess leverage of forelimb muscles in the transition from the narrow-gauge stance of basal sauropods to a wide-gauge stance in titanosaurs.

Three-Dimensional Musculoskeletal Modeling of the Sauropodomorph Hind Limb: The Effect of Postural Change on Muscle Leverage.

The biomechanical constraints for life at massive size can be directly observed in the evolutionary history of sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Members of this lineage underwent a number of major postural transitions as they increased in size from relatively small bipedal dinosaurs to massive titanosaurs that include the largest terrestrial animals of all time. To better understand the impact of gigantic size on the biomechanics of sauropods, we used three-dimensional musculoskeletal modeling to investigate how hind limb musculature was affected, first by the development of a quadrupedal stance from a bipedal one, and later in the transition from a narrow-gauge to a wide-gauge stance.

A 3D anatomical atlas of appendage musculature in the chelicerate arthropod Limulus polyphemus.

Limulus polyphemus, an archetypal chelicerate taxon, has interested both biological and paleontological researchers due to its unique suite of anatomical features and as a useful modern analogue for fossil arthropod groups. To assist the study and documentation of this iconic taxon, we present a 3D atlas on the appendage musculature, with specific focus on the muscles of the cephalothoracic appendages. As L.

Digital dissection and three-dimensional interactive models of limb musculature in the Australian estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).

Digital dissection is a relatively new technique that has enabled scientists to gain a better understanding of vertebrate anatomy. It can be used to rapidly disseminate detailed, three-dimensional information in an easily accessible manner that reduces the need for destructive, traditional dissections. Here we present the results of a digital dissection on the appendicular musculature of the Australian estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).