The genome formula of a multipartite virus is regulated both at the individual segment and the segment group levels.

Differential accumulation of the distinct genome segments is a common feature of viruses with segmented genomes. The reproducible and specific pattern of genome segment accumulation within the host is referred to as the "genome formula". There is speculation and some experimental support for a functional role of the genome formula by modulating gene expression through copy number variations.

Plant neighbour-modulated susceptibility to pathogens in intraspecific mixtures.

As part of a trend towards diversifying cultivated areas, varietal mixtures are subject to renewed interest as a means to manage diseases. Besides the epidemiological effects of varietal mixtures on pathogen propagation, little is known about the effect of intraspecific plant-plant interactions and their impact on responses to disease. In this study, genotypes of rice (Oryza sativa) or durum wheat (Triticum turgidum) were grown with different conspecific neighbours and manually inoculated under conditions preventing pathogen propagation.

Hazard identification, classification, and risk assessment of carcinogens: too much or too little? - Report of an ECETOC workshop.

The European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC) organized a workshop "" to explore the scientific limitations of the current binary carcinogenicity classification scheme that classifies substances as either carcinogenic or not. Classification is often based upon the rodent 2-year bioassay, which has scientific limitations and is not necessary to predict whether substances are likely human carcinogens. By contrast, tiered testing strategies founded on new approach methodologies (NAMs) followed by subchronic toxicity testing, as necessary, are useful to determine if a substance is likely carcinogenic, by which mode-of-action effects would occur and, for non-genotoxic carcinogens, the dose levels below which the key events leading to carcinogenicity are not affected.